Namari nouns
In Namari, nouns (Namari: なことば nakotoba) are one of the major word classes. They name some specific thing or set of things, and act as arguments to words and postpositions. Nouns in Namari are marked for case, topic and focus, and optionally for number (singular, dual, plural).
General
Nouns have 12 cases and three numbers. Number inflections are optional, and forbidden if an explicit numeral is attached to the noun. Case markers are mandatory, and cannot be left out (unlike in Japanese, where the nominative and accusative markers may be omitted in informal speech). Nouns can take honorific prefixes, as well as topic and focus markers.
The markers are considered to be actual suffixes and inflections; this contrasts with the situation in Japanese, where there is no consensus as to whether the case particles can be considered inflections or clitics. In some cases, the markers have fused with the noun itself, or other markers.
The examples consist of six lines each:
- The first line is the original sentence, written in kana.
- The second line is the transliteration into the Latin alphabet. Refer to the romanisation subsection of the language's article for details.
- The third line splits each word into its individual morphemes, while preserving any pronunciaiton changes, sandhi and euphonic changes.
- The fourth line is the same as the third, except it reverts all non-lexical pronunciation changes, sandhi and euphonic changes.
- The fifth line is the interlinear gloss for the sentence. See wikipedia:Interlinear gloss and wikipedia:List of glossing abbreviations for details.
- The sixth line is the English translation of the sentence.
Nominative
The nominative case (Namari: なおてがた naotegata) marks the agent of the verb. It is also used to mark the sole core argument of an intransitive verb. For some verbs and verb forms, it actually marks the patient (direct object) of the verb. It is also the form to which the copula is attached to form a predicative noun.
The nominative case in the standard language is considered a "nominative-absolutive". This reflects its role in marking the patient for certain verbs and verb forms, attaining a behaviour similar to that of an absolutive case. Note that some other dialects have an "accusative-absolutive" instead, where the accusative is used as an absolutive.
Examples:
えに おとこお かんだ eni otokō kanda en-i otoko-o kan-∅-da enu-i otoko-o kam-i-ta dog-NOM man-ACC bite-PRES-PERF The dog has bitten the man
This shows the "doer" of the verb (the dog) in the nominative case, while the thing being acted upon (the man) is in the accusative case.
よき ふっとい yoki puttoi yoki-∅ put-to-i yoki-∅ puy-itoy-i snow-NOM fall-PROG-PRES "It is snowing" (lit. "Snow is falling")
In this case, ふゆ puyu is an intransitive verb, which means よき yoki is in the nominative case.
つきやなあん tuki-yanān tuk-i=ya-na-∅-an tuko-i=ya-na-∅-an moon-NOM=COP-EXIST.INAN.NEG-PRES-NEG "It isn't the moon"
This is an example of a predicative noun. The copula attaches to the noun as a clitic. Note that the copula is negated by adding the negative inanimate existential and negating that (effectively forming a double negative).
ふたばが ちよ しえい Putabaga Chiyo shiei Putaba-ga Chiyo-∅ shi-ei Putaba-ga Chiyo-∅ shiy-ei Futaba-GEN.AN Chiyo-NOM know-PST "Futaba knew Chiyo"
The verb しゆ shiyu is an example of a verb or verb form which puts its patient in the nominative case. To compensate, the actual agent is put into the genitive case. The only other verb/verb forms which behave this way are わかゆ wakayu "to understand" and the potential voice.
Accusative
The accusative case (Namari: むかいおてがた mukaiotegata), in general, marks the patient, or the direct object, of the verb.
Examples:
わえ ねこお みい wae nekō mī wa-e neko-o mi-i wa-e neko-o mi-i 1s-NOM cat-ACC see-PRES "I see the cat"
こま わお おうとい koma wao outoi koma-∅ wa-o o-uto-i koma-∅ wa-o o-itoy-i bear-NOM 1s-ACC chase-PROG-PRES "The bear is chasing me"
とい くもお とんどい toi kumō tondoi toi-∅ kumo-o ton-do-i toi-∅ kumo-o tob-itoy-i bird-NOM cloud-ACC fly-PROG-PRES "The bird is flying through the clouds"
For verbs of motion, such as とぶ tobu "to fly", the accusative case is used as a locative.
Vocative
What is referred to as the vocative case (Namari: よびおてがた yobiotegata) is actually two forms. There is the full vocative, and the short vocative. Both forms have identical functions. The vocative indicates the noun being addressed.
The full vocative is a marked form of the noun, while the short vocative is unmarked.
Examples:
ともよ、 まくよな tomoyo, makuyona tomo-yo, mak-uyo-na tomo-yo, mak-uyo-na friend-VOC, lose-PFV-PROH "Don't lose, friend"
This shows the full vocative, which is marked by 〜よ yo.
ゆい、 なにお しとよか？ Yui, nanio shitoyoka? Yui, nani-o sh-itoy-o-ka? Yui, nani-o s-itoy-o-ka? Yui, what-ACC do-PROG-PRES-INT "Yui, what are you doing?"
This shows the short vocative, which is not marked.
Genitive
The genitive case (Namari: もちおてがた mochiotegata) marks a noun which is used to modify another noun, whether it be as a possessive or as a descriptor (or something else). In addition, it also marks the agent in clauses where the patient is in the nominative case, as well as agents in attributive clauses where the verb is transitive. The genitive is also the case which governs all postpositions in Namari. The form of the genitive differs between animate and inanimate nouns.
In the standard language, the genitive is considered a "genitive-ergative". This is because the genitive can be used to mark the agent for certain verbs and verb forms, but only if the underlying verb is transitive in the first place. This resembles the behaviour of an ergative case. Note that some dialects do not have this property, instead using the nominative case (sometimes using the nominative for both agent and patient, resulting in word order being required to distinguish them).
In most cases, using the wrong genitive form (e.g. using an inanimate form for an animate noun, a common mistake by Japanese speakers) will only result in awkward stares, as the meaning of the sentence itself is not changed. However, for some nouns, its meaning changes depending on which genitive form is used (e.g. とないの tonaino, the inanimate genitive of とない tonai, means "neighbouring", without stating whether the modified noun has an owner or not, while とないが tonaiga, the animate genitive, means "of the neighbour" or "neighbour's", explicitly stating that the modified noun belongs to a neighbour).
Note that the genitive marker can also attach to some other cases, such as the ablative. This forms a secondary genitive case based on the original case of the noun.
Examples:
こまちが いもうと Komachiga imouto Komachi-ga imouto Komachi-ga imouto Komachi-GEN.AN younger_sister "Komachi's younger sister"
This phrase shows possession (i.e. the younger sister belongs to Komachi). Note that -ga is used; this is because Komachi is obviously animate (as she is female and human).
いしの えよ ishino eyo ishi-no eyo ishi-no eyo stone-GEN.INAN colour "The stone's colour"
In this phrase, -no is used, as stones are inanimate.
ふじの やま Pujino yama Puji-no yama Puji-no yama Fuji-GEN.INAN mountain "Mount Fuji"
This phrase shows how the genitive can indicate apposition.
しずかが かえゆや たべう Shizukaga kaeyuya tabeu Shizuka-ga kaeyu-ya-∅ tab-e-u Shizuka-ga kaeyu-ya-∅ tab-e-u Shizuka-GEN.AN frog-PL-NOM eat-POT-PRES "Shizuka can eat frogs"
In this sentence, the verb is in the potential voice; this means that the patient is in the nominative case, resulting in the agent being put in the genitive case to avoid confusion.
ももかが おえよ こねこ にぐえった Momokaga oeyo koneko niguetta Momoka-ga o-ey-o koneko-∅ nig-uet-ta Momoka-ga o-ey-o koneko-∅ nig-uey-ita Momoka-GEN.AN chase-PST-ATTR kitten-NOM escape-PST-PERF The kitten which Momoka chased had escaped.
If an attributive clause uses a transitive verb, then the agent is marked for the genitive case. This only applies to transitive verbs; intransitive verbs (and verbs with dative direct objects) use the nominative for their sole core argument. Note that in this particular sentence, changing "Momoka" into the nominative case will cause the sentence to mean "The kitten which had Momoka had escaped" because the animate existential おい oi and the verb おう ou "to chase" have identical perfective forms.
なえ わが そば ずっと おった nae waga soba zutto otta na-e wa-ga soba zutto ot-∅-ta na-e wa-ga soba zutto oy-i-ta 2s-NOM 1s-GEN.AN beside always EXIST.AN-PRES-PERF "You have always been beside me"
This sentence demonstrates how the genitive is used with postpositions. In this case, the genitive of わえ wae is combined with the postposition そばん soban "beside" (note that the final ん -n is dropped from the postposition in this particular phonological environment; it is only retained before a sonorant).
Dative
The dative case (Namari: もやいおてがた moyaiotegata) marks the indirect object of a verb, or a beneficiary. A few verbs use this as their direct object case.
はな わん ふみがきお あぐえった Pana wan pumigakio aguetta Pana-∅ wa-n pumigaki-o ag-uet-ta Pana-∅ wa-n pumigaki-o ag-uey-ita Hana-NOM 1s-DAT book-ACC give.3>1-PST-PERF "Hana had given me a book"
The verb あぐ agu accepts three different arguments. In this case, the recipient is in the dative case.
やまとん ゆけ Yamaton yuke Yamato-n yuk-e Yamato-n yuk-e Japan-DAT go-PFV.IMP "Go to Japan"
The dative case can be used as a marker of destination. The main difference between it and the allative is that the allative is only an indication of direction, while the dative is used to provide an explicit destination. So something like *にしん ゆけ *nishin yuke is not correct, as にし nishi "west" is not a valid location.
いえ みゆきん あい ie Miyukin ai ie-∅ Miyuki-n a-i ie-∅ Miyuki-n ay-i house-NOM Miyuki-DAT EXIST.INAN.AFF-PRES Miyuki has a house
This sentence shows how the dative case can signify possession. In Namari, both mihi est (Latin: "to me is") and habeo (Latin: "I have") type constructions exist, but the former is the predominant construction used in the language. This sentence is an example of such a construction.
わえ いきん おい wae ikin oi wa-e iki-n o-i wa-e iki-n oy-i 1s-NOM here-DAT EXIST.AN-PRES I am here
This sentence is an example of the dative being used as a locative. The dative case can only be used as a locative for stative verbs; for most verbs, the locative case must be used.
はゆな ひめん ないたかい Payuna pimen naitakai Payuna-∅ pime-n na-ita-kai Payuna-∅ pime-n nay-ita-kai Haruna-NOM princess-DAT become-DES-PRES Haruna wants to become a princess
Some verbs, such as なゆ nayu, take a dative direct object, as shown above.
たまご こおとめん とやえた tamago kōtomen toyaeta tamago-∅ kōtome-n toy-a-e-ta tamago-∅ kōtome-n toy-ay-e-ta egg-NOM girl-DAT take-PASS-PRES-PERF The egg has been taken by the girl
The dative case can mark the agent of a passive clause.
たえか なん あいかせけみい taeka nan aikasekemī tae-ka-∅ na-n aik-as-ekemī tae-ka-∅ na-n aik-as-ekemī who-some-NOM 2s-DAT walk-CAUS-FUT "Someone will make you walk"
In causative clauses, the original agent is demoted to the dative case (as seen above).
Instrumental
The instrumental case (Namari: みちおてがた michiotegata) marks the means by which the agent accomplishes an action. It is not to be confused with the comitative.
Examples:
ふみ かたなで てきお きえい Pumi katanade tekio kiei Pumi-∅ katana-de teki-o ki-ei Pumi-∅ katana-de teki-o kiy-ei Fumi-NOM sword-INS enemy-ACC cut_down-PST "Fumi cut down the enemy with a sword"
This sentence demonstrates the instrumental case. The sword is used to perform the action, therefore it is placed in the instrumental case.
Comitative
The comitative case (Namari: ともないおてがた tomonaiotekata) marks a noun which accompanies the agent. It is not to be confused with the instrumental.
Examples:
みやこ あきと おーさかん ゆけい Miyako Akito Ōsakan yukei Miyako-∅ Aki-to Ōsaka-n yuk-ei Miyako-∅ Aki-to Ōsaka-n yuk-ei Miyako-NOM Aki-COM Osaka-DAT go-PST "Miyako went to Osaka with Aki"
This sentence shows a typical use of the comitative case. In this case, Aki accompanies Miyako, but is not the subject of the sentence.
こねこ といと おもかい koneko toito omokai koneko-∅ toi-to omo-kai koneko-∅ toi-to omo-kai kitten-NOM bird-COM heavy-PRES "The kitten is as heavy as the bird"
The comitative is also used in equative clauses. The comitative, comparative and the terminative provide the three points of comparison with comparative clauses in Namari, representing "equals", "greater than" and "less than" respectively.
おふたいとが みち oputaitoga michi o-puta-i-to-ga michi o-puta-i-to-ga michi HON-two-person.CL-COM-GEN.AN path "A path with two people"
The comitative case is one of the cases which can also take a genitive. If the comitative marker is taken out, the phrase instead becomes "a path belonging to two people".
Ablative
The ablative case (Namari: かやおてがた kayaotegata) marks a noun which indicates origin. It is not to be confused with the comparative, although in some cases the ablative and comparative are interchangeable.
Examples:
なおみ にーがたかや くえい Naomi Nīgatakaya kuei Naomi-∅ Nīgata-kaya k-uei Naomi-∅ Nīgata-kaya k-uei Naomi-NOM Niigata-ABL come-PST "Naomi came from Niigata"
This demonstrates the use of the ablative to reference a point in space (the same applies to time). The ablative is used when there is no specific endpoint either given or inferred (but still exists), or the endpoint is the location/timeframe of the speaker him/herself (for the latter, the ablative is interchangeable with the comparative). It cannot be used when there is an explicit or inferred endpoint, or when it is inferred or explicitly given that there is no endpoint at all. This means that the ablative tends to be associated with past actions and the comparative with present or future actions.
みそとせまえかやの はなし misotosemaekayano panashi mi-so-tose-mae-kaya-no panashi mi-so-tose-mae-kaya-no panashi three-ten.CL-year.CL-before-ABL-GEN.INAN story "A story from thirty years ago"
Like the comitative, the ablative can also take a genitive. If the ablative marker is taken out, the phrase becomes "a story which is set thirty years ago".
Allative
The allative case (Namari: ゆきおてがた yukiotegata) marks the direction or destination of an action. While one may consider it the opposite to the ablative and comparative, it is not quite the case; the allative can be used as a lative (explicitly indicating destination), but that function can also be taken by the dative. What the allative marks is the general direction of an action, so nouns which cannot be a valid destination (such as general directions and cardinal points) can still be marked using the allative. The allative cannot be used as the complement to an argument in the comparative case; in this case the terminative is used.
Examples:
きたんへ ゆかむ kitampe yukamu kita-mpe yuk-am-u kita-mpe yuk-am-u north-ALL go-HORT-PFV "Let's go north"
This is an example of using the allative case to mark something which is not a valid destination.
ひんがいんへの くゆま pingaimpeno kuyuma pingai-mpe-no kuyuma pingai-mpe-no kuyuma east-ALL-GEN.INAN car "a car heading east"
The allative is another case which can take a genitive. If the allative marker is removed, the phrase will become "an eastern car".
Comparative
The comparative case (Namari: ゆかいおてがた yukaiotegata) marks a point of comparison or origin. While it is similar to the ablative, it has some unique functions. The name "comparative" comes from the fact that this case is used in comparative clauses as a point of comparison.
Examples:
わえや やときめよい はたやいとった waeya yatokimeyoi patayaitotta wae-ya-∅ ya-toki-me-yoi pataya-itot-∅-ta wae-ya-∅ ya-toki-me-yoi patayak-itoy-i-ta 1-PL-NOM eight-hour.CL-ORD.NUM-COMP work-PROG-PRES-PERF "We have been working since 8 o'clock"
This is one example of how the comparative can be used in an ablative role. Since no endpoint is defined (let alone given or inferred), the ablative cannot be used. Note that if the sentence is in past tense, then the ablative must be used, since by definition there must be an endpoint, but the endpoint would not be given or inferred from the context.
その でんしゃ やえぞやよい ちよはやまで いっとい sono densha Yaezoyayoi Chiyopayamade ittoi so-no densha-∅ Yaezoya-yoi Chiyopaya-made it-to-i so-no densha-∅ Yaezoya-yoi Chiyopaya-made yuk-itoy-i DIST-GEN train-NOM Yaezora-COMP Chiyohara-TERM go-PROG-PRES "That train runs from Yaezora to Chiyohara"
This is another example of how the comparative can be used as an ablative. This time, an endpoint is explicitly given by a noun in the terminative case.
ことみ さちよい おもかい Kotomi Sachiyoi omokai Kotomi-∅ Sachi-yoi omo-kai Kotomi-∅ Sachi-yoi omo-kai Kotomi-NOM Sachi-COMP heavy-PRES "Kotomi is heavier than Sachi"
This sentence shows the comparative being used as a point of comparison. When the comparative is used, the nominative argument possesses the property described by the adjective to a greater extent than the comparative argument. This use is in opposition to the terminative.
かな よたびよい した Kana yotabiyoi shita Kana-∅ yo-tabi-yoi-∅ sh-i-ta Kana-∅ yo-tabi-yoi-∅ s-i-ta Kana-NOM four-times.CL-at_least-COMP do-PRES-PERF "Kana has done it at least four times"
Note that the marker -yoi can also attach to a numeral-classifier compound to indicate an "at least" meaning. This creates another noun, and its declension is defective. It only has a genitive (-yoino/-yoiga), dative (-yoin), and a combined ablative-comparative (-yoi). To indicate other cases, a periphrastic construction must be used. If a range begins with a point marked using the combined comparative-dative, it indicates that the starting point is not included in the range.
Terminative
The terminative case (Namari: はておてがた pateotegata) marks the limit of an action. It is considered the opposite to the ablative and comparative, and is not to be confused with the allative.
さよこ とーてときめまで のこえい Sayoko tōtetokimemade nokoei Sayoko-∅ tō-te-toki-me-made noko-ei Sayoko-∅ tō-te-toki-me-made nokoy-ei Sayoko-NOM ten-one-hour.CL-ORD.NUM-TERM remain-PST "Sayoko stayed until eleven o'clock"
This illustrates the use of the terminative to indicate the limit or endpoint of an action. In this case, the action was performed until the time specified (11 o'clock). If a starting point is specified, it must be marked using the comparative case.
すず なおこまで うつくし Suzu Naokomade utukushi Suzu-∅ Naoko-made utukushi-∅ Suzu-∅ Naoko-made utukushi-∅ Suzu-NOM Naoko-TERM beautiful-PRES "Suzu is less beautiful than Naoko"
This sentence shows the terminative being used as a point of comparison. It serves the opposite function of the comparative, giving the clause a "less than" meaning.
ゆか みったいまでん たべものお あぐえい Yuka mittaimaden tabemonō aguei Yuka-∅ mit-tai-made-n tabemono-o ag-uei Yuka-∅ mit-tai-made-n tabemono-o ag-uei Yuka-NOM three-person.CL-at_most-DAT food-ACC give.3>3-PST "Yuka gave food to up to three people"
As the counterpart to the comparative, the terminative marker -made can be used to indicate an "at most" meaning, forming another noun. Like its counterpart form, its declension is defective. It only has a genitive (-madeno/-madega), dative (-maden) and a terminative (-made). To indicate other cases, a periphrastic construction must be used. If the combined terminative-dative is used as the endpoint of a range, it indicates that the endpoint is not included in the range.
Locative
The locative case (Namari: とこよおてがた tokoyōtegata) indicates the location of an action. The locative is only used with dynamic verbs; for stative verbs the dative serves the same purpose, and verbs of motion use the accusative.
きのう わえ とないが いえんで たぶえい kinou wae tonaiga iende tabuei kinou wa-e tonai-ga ie-nde tab-uei kinou wa-e tonai-ga ie-nde tab-uei yesterday 1sg-NOM neighbour-GEN.AN house-LOC eat-PST "Yesterday I ate at my neighbour's house"
This sentence demonstrates the use of the locative. It demonstrates that the speaker performed the action at a particular place (the neighbour's house).