Language scratchpad/Altlangs/Alternate reconstructions/Proto-Japonic scratchpad/Descendants

This page compares some of the descendant conlangs of Proto-Japonic. So far, three languages are featured here: Namari (namaikotoba), New Kudara (ftārafča) and Tanmuran (tammurakotoba). Of the three, Namari is the one I've developed the most. In the Innocence Seekers setting, New Kudara (spoken in Kudara province in Namari) is the only surviving Peninsular Japonic language, while both Namari (spoken in Namari and Likkra) and Tanmuran (spoken on Jeju island in Korea and on Tsushima and Kyushu in Japan) are Insular Japonic languages.

Disclaimer: The entirety of this article's contents is to be considered science fiction. They are not, in any way, verified and accepted reconstructions of real-life proto-languages, even if they are largely based on accepted reconstructions.

Phonology

Vowels

Namari has by far the most vowels of any Japonic language in the Innocence Seekers setting, with between nine and eleven phonemic vowels depending on dialect (the most in any real-life Japonic language I know of is seven). On the other hand, Tanmuran only has five phonemic vowels (like Japanese), and New Kudara has six. New Kudara also has vowel harmony based on vowel height, with /a/, /e/ and /o/ forming one group and /ə/, /i/ and /u/ forming the other group.

The following table lists the reflexes of each Proto-Japonic vowel and vowel sequence:

Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
*i	i	(null), a, ə, (word-initial) s, (after /w/) i	i
*e	e, i	i, e	e, i
*u	u	(null), a, ə, (word-initial) f	u
*o	o, u	u, o	o, u
*ə	o	o, u	o
*a	a	a, ə	a
*ei, *ui, *oi	i	(null), a, ə, (word-initial) s, (after /w/) i	i
*əi	e, i	i, e (e, i after coronals)	e, i
*ai, *iə, *ia	e	e, i	e
*au, *ua	o	o, u	o

Consonants

As few as nine consonants are reconstructed for Proto-Japonic. Voicing was likely allophonic, with obstruents voiced intervocally (this behaviour is still retained in Yonaguni, although the voiced consonants have become phonemic). What became the "muddy" consonants in Japanese (in most dialects, these consonants are plain voiced) were descended from prenasalised consonants, and the intervocalic obstruents lost their voicing (in most dialects; Tōhoku dialects do still retain intervocalic voicing).

If the prenasalised consonants are considered their own phonemes, this means that Proto-Japonic had thirteen consonant phonemes. The outcome of each consonant in the three languages featured is as followed:

Proto-Japonic	Namari			New Kudara			Tanmuran
	Default	Before /i/	Before /u/	Default	Before /i/	Before /u/	Default	Before /i/	Before /u/
*k	k	k	k	k	t͡ɕ	f	k	k	k
*nk	g	g	g	g	ʑ	v	g	g	g
*s	s	ɕ	s	s	ɕ	s	s	ɕ	s
*ns	z	ʑ	z	z	ʑ	z	z	ʑ	z
*t	t	t͡ɕ	θ	t	t͡ɕ	t͡s	t	t͡ɕ	t͡s
*nt	d	ʑ	z	d	ʑ	z	d	ʑ	z
*n	n	ɲ	n	n	z	n	n	ɲ	n
*p	p	p	p	p	s	f	ɸ, h(a)	ɸ	ɸ
*mp	b	b	b	b	z	v	b	b	b
*m	m	m	m	m	n	m	m	m	m
*j	j, (null)(e)	N/A	j	j	N/A	i	j, (null)(e)	N/A	j
*r	j, (null)(e)	(null)	j	r	l	r	r	r	r
*w	w(a), (null)	(null)	N/A	w, (null)(o)	w	N/A	w(a), (null)	(null)	N/A

While intervocalic */p/ is retained in New Kudara, both Namari and Tanmuran eventually lose it in most environments. In Namari, most instances of intervocalic */p/ became first */ɸ/, then /h/ in Middle Namari. The only exceptions were if they occurred after /u/, in which case the expected reflex is /w/. By the Modern Namari period, almost all /h/ were lost (the only exception being the topic marker), while instances of /w/ before /e/ and /i/ were subject to monophthongisation if they occurred after /u/; only /w/ before /a/ and after /u/ was retained.

Tanmuran underwent a development similar to that of Japanese and the Ryukyuan languages, namely, the unconditional change of intervocalic */p/ to /w/. This /w/ was eventually lost before all vowels except /a/.

Namari has the following consonant inventory:

	Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m	n	ɲ	(ŋ)
Stop	p b	t d		k g
Fricative	ɸ (β)	θ (ð)	ç	x (ɣ)	(h)
Sibilant		s z	ɕ ʑ
Affricate		(t͡s) (d͡z)	t͡ɕ (d͡ʑ)
Approximant			j	w
Liquid		ɺ

Tanmuran has a similar consonant inventory, except that its /θ/ is an aspirated stop [tʰ] instead, and that it has a phonemic /h/ and /t͡s/. The difference between /t/ and /θ/ in Tanmuran is neutralised word-initially, with both being realised as [tʰ]. Namari /ɸ/ and /x/ and Tanmuran /θ/ and /x/ are primarily found in Sinitic loanwords.

New Kudara has the following consonant inventory:

	Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar
Nasal	m	n		(ŋ)
Stop	p pʰ b	t tʰ d		k kʰ g
Fricative	f v			x ɣ
Sibilant		s z	ɕ ʑ
Affricate		t͡s t͡sʰ (d͡z)	t͡ɕ t͡ɕʰ (d͡ʑ)
Approximant			j	w
Liquid		ɾ
Lateral		l

The distinction between the tenuis and aspirated voiceless obstruents is only made word-initially (in the orthography, the tenuis obstruents are indicated by a preceding <f>). In other environments, the distinction is neutralised.

When a word-initial cluster is created as a result of the loss of */i/ and */u/, the following vowel is always lengthened. Additionally, some word-initial clusters undergo their own sound changes:

First	Second	Result
/f/	/p/, /b/	[p]
/f/	/t/, /d/	[t]
/f/	/k/, /g/	[k]
/v/	/b/	[b]
/v/	/d/	[d]
/v/	/g/	[g]
/m/, /n/	/p/, /b/	[b]
/m/, /n/	/f/, /v/	[v]
/m/, /n/	/t/, /d/	[d]
/m/, /n/	/s/, /t͡s/, /z/	[z]
/m/, /n/	/ɕ/, /t͡ɕ/, /ʑ/	[ʑ]
/m/	/ɾ/	[bɾ]
/n/	/ɾ/	[dɾ]
/m/	/l/	[bl]
/n/	/l/	[zl]
/m/, /n/	/k/, /g/	[g]
/m/, /n/	/x/, /ɣ/	[ɣ]
/s/	/b/	[sv]
/t͡s/	/b/	[t͡sv]
/ɕ/	/b/	[ɕv]
/t͡ɕ/	/b/	[t͡ɕv]
/m/	/j/	[n]
/p(ʰ)/	/j/	[s]
/b/, /n/	/j/	[z]
/f/	/j/	[x]
/v/	/j/	[ɣ]
/t/, /k/, /t͡s/, /t͡ɕ/	/j/	[t͡ɕ]
/tʰ/, /kʰ/, /t͡sʰ/, /t͡ɕʰ/	/j/	[t͡ɕʰ]
/d/, /z/, /ʑ/, /g/, /ɣ/	/j/	[ʑ]
/s/, /ɕ/, /x/	/j/	[ɕ]
/ɾ/	/j/	[l]
/l/	/j/	[j]
/k/	/w/	[f]
/g/	/w/	[v]

Voiced obstruents (with the exception of /v/ after an unvoiced sibilant) lose their voicing when in a cluster with an unvoiced obstruent. Additionally, all sibilant clusters assimilate into a single sibilant (the first sibilant determines whether the resulting consonant is a fricative or an affricate, while if either sibilant is palatalised, the resulting sibilant is also palatalised), and /j/ after any consonant unconditionally induces palatalisation. Any /w/ occurring after a labial is lost, while /w/ after /k/ and /g/ assimilate to form /f/ and /v/ respectively. Finally, /t͡s/ (and its voiced counterpart /z/) assimilate into any following stop, /f/, /v/, /x/ or /ɣ/, forming a geminate (this occurs after devoicing, so /z/ + /k/ becomes /sk/ instead of */gː/).

Among word-initial clusters, stops (unless followed by /ɾ/ or /l/), /ɾ/, /l/, /j/ and /w/ cannot occur as the first consonant. An epenthetic /a/ or /ə/ (dependent on vowel harmony) is inserted after stops, /ɾ/ and /l/, while the glides /j/ and /w/ are converted into their vocalic counterparts (/e/ and /i/ for /j/, /o/ and /u/ for /w/).

Phonotactics

Proto-Japonic has been hypothesised to have had a strict CV(j,w?)(N) syllable structure, where V could either be short or long. The only place V and VN syllables could occur was word-initially; all non-word-initial syllables must begin with a consonant. What is not clear is whether Proto-Japonic allowed word-final consonants.

Both Namari and Tanmuran have a slightly looser syllable structure, namely (C)(j)V(j,w)(N), where V can either be short or long. Namari also allows overlong (trimoraic) vowels. Note that this syllable structure in Namari only applies to the phonemic description of the language; phonetically, dialects (including the standard Yaezora dialect) may allow additional consonant clusters that do not fit into the nominal syllable structure.

In comparison, New Kudara has the syllable structure (C)(C)V(j,w)(C), where V can either be short or long. The more complex phonotactics in New Kudara is the consequence of the elision of */i/ and */u/. While words ending in stops are rare in native words, they are common in loanwords.

Numbers

Value	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
(indef.)	*eku	eku	if	eku
0		nashi	nas	nō
1	*pitə (*-te-)	pito (-tetu)	stō (stīc)	ficho (tetsu)
2	*puta	puta	ftā	futa
3	*mi	mi	nə	mi
4	*yə	yo	jo	yo
5	*itu	etu	səc	ichu
6	*mu	mu	mə	mu
7	*nana	nana	nana	nana
8	*ya	ya	ja	ya
9	*kəkənə	kokono	kokono	kokono
10	*təwə	tō	tō	tō
20	*pata	pata	pata	hata
30	*mi-so	miso	nəsu	misho
40	*yə-so	yoso	joso	yoso
50	*i-so	eso	sū	isho
60	*mu-so	muso	məsu	muso
70	*nana-so	nanaso	nanaso	nanaso
80	*ya-so	yaso	jaso	yaso
90	*kəkənə-so	kokonoso	kokonoso	kokonoso
100	*momo	momo	mumu	momo
200	*puta-po	putao	ftāpo	futō
300	*mi-po	mio	nəpu	myō
400	*yə-po	yō	jopo	yō
500	*i-po	eo	spū	icho
600	*mu-po	muo	məpu	mō
700	*nana-po	nanao	nanapo	nanō
800	*ya-po	yao	japo	yofō
900	*kəkənə-po	kokonō	kokonopo	kokonō
1,000	*ti	chi	čə (-č)	chi
2,000	*puta-ti	putachi	ftāč	futachi
3,000	*mi-ti	michi	nəččə	michi
4,000	*yə-ti	yochi	jočča	yochi
5,000	*i-ti	echi	šœ	ichi
6,000	*mu-ti	muchi	məččə	muchi
7,000	*nana-ti	nanachi	nanač	nanachi
8,000	*ya-ti	yachi	jačča	yachi
9,000	*kəkənə-ti	kokonochi	kokonoč	kokonochi
10,000	*yərən-tu	yoyozu	joroz	yorozu

In New Kudara, numerals less than one hundred have their own forms (in comparison, Namari only has unique forms for eleven and twelve). They are listed below:

	+1	+2	+3	+4	+5	+6	+7	+8	+9	+10
0	stō	ftā	nə	jo	səc	mə	nana	ja	kokono	tō
10	tosto	tofta	tōz	tojo	tocca	tōm	tōna	toja	tokono	pata
20	patasto	patafta	pataz	patajo	patacca	patam	patana	pataja	patakono	nəsu
30	zustu	zuftə	zūz	zuju	zuccə	zūm	zunə	zujə	zukunu	joso
40	josto	josta	josoz	josojo	josocca	josom	josona	josoja	josokono	sū
50	sustu	suftə	sūz	sūju	succə	sūm	sunə	sujə	sukunu	məsu
60	vustu	vuftə	vūz	vūju	vuccə	vūm	vunə	vujə	vukunu	nanaso
70	nasosto	nasofta	nasoz	nasojo	nasocca	nasom	nasona	nasoja	nasokono	jaso
80	šosto	šofta	šōz	šojo	šocca	šōm	šona	šoja	šokono	kokonoso
90	kozosto	kozofta	kozoz	kozojo	kozocca	kozom	kozona	kozoja	kozokono	mumu

Classifiers

The history of classifiers in the Japonic languages has been fairly obscured by Chinese influence, but I can reconstruct three classifiers that do not resemble the nouns they describe:

• *-tu, the general classifier
• *-(ta)ri, the classifier for people
• *-uka, the classifier for days

From Old Japanese evidence, in particular from prose, it is apparent that classifiers were in limited use, typically used to refer to elevated objects and deities. In most cases, count forms of nouns are combined directly with numerals. Hence I believe that numerals in Proto-Japonic behaved the same way as adjectives: they were bound forms that directly attached to a noun.

The following table lists the forms of each numeral-classifier compound and their descendants:

Value	*-tu				*-(ta)ri				*-uka
	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
(indef.)	*eku-tu	ekutu	ifcə	ekutsu	*eku-tari	ekutai	iftəl	ekutari	*eku-uka	ekuka	ifkə	ekuka
1	*pite-tu	pitotu, pitetu	stīc	tetsu, fichetsu	*pitə-ri	pitoi	stōl	fichori	*pitə-pi	pitoe, pitopi	stōs	fichoi
2	*puta-tu	putatu	ftāc	futatsu	*puta-ri	putai	ftāl	futari	*puta-uka	putuka	ftōka	futsuka
3	*mit-tu	mittu	nəc	mitchu	*mit-tari	mittai	nəttəl	mitchari	*mit-uka	mikka	nəkkə	mikka
4	*yə-tu	yottu	joc	yotsu	*yə-tari	yottai	jotal	yotari	*yə-uka	yokka	joka	yokka
5	*itu-tu	etutu	səcəc	ichutsu	*itu-tari	etutai	səttəl	ichutari	*itu-uka	etuka	səkkə	ichuka
6	*mut-tu	muttu	məc	muttsu	*mut-tari	muttai	məttəl	muttari	*mut-uka → *muyuka	muika	mīkə	muika
7	*nana-tu	nanatu	nanac	nanatsu	*nana-tari	nanatai	nanatal	nanatari	*nana-uka	nanoka	nanoka	nanoka
8	*ya-tu	yattu	jac	yatsu	*ya-tari	yattai	jatal	yatari	*ya-uka	yauka	jaka	yōka
9	*kəkənə-tu	kokonotu	kokonoc	kokonotsu	*kəkənə-tari	kokonotai	kokonotal	kokonotari	*kəkənə-uka	kokonoka	kokonoka	kokonoka
10	*tə-wə	tō	tō	tō	*tə-tari	totai	total	totari	*tə-uka	tōka	tōka	tōka
11	*tə-wə amar-i pite-tu	tōtetu	tostec	tōtetsu	*tə-tari amar-i pitə-ri	tōtetai	tostol	tōtari-tori	*tə-uka amar-i pitə-pi	tōtoe	tostos	tōka-toi
12	*tə-wə amar-i puta-tu	tōtatu	toftac	tōtatsu	*tə-tari amar-i puta-ri	tōtatai	toftal	tōtari-tari	*tə-uka amar-i puta-uka	tōtuka	toftoka	tōka-tsuka
13	*tə-wə amar-i mit-tu	tō-mittu	tōzac	tō mitchu	*tə-tari amar-i mit-tari	totai-mittai	tōzattal	tōtari mitchari	*tə-uka amar-i mit-uka	tōka-mikka	tōzakka	tōka mikka
14	*tə-wə amar-i yə-tu	tō-yottu	tojoc	tō yotsu	*tə-tari amar-i yə-tari	totai-yottai	tojotal	tōtari yotari	*tə-uka amar-i yə-uka	tōka-yokka	tojoka	tōka yokka
15	*tə-wə amar-i itu-tu	tō-etutu	toccac	tō ichutsu	*tə-tari amar-i itu-tari	totai-etutai	toccatal	tōtari ichutari	*tə-uka amar-i itu-uka	tōka-etuka	toccaka	tōka ichuka
16	*tə-wə amar-i mut-tu	tō-muttu	tōmac	tō muttsu	*tə-tari amar-i mut-tari	totai-muttai	tōmattal	tōtari muttari	*tə-uka amar-i mut-uka	tōka-muika	tōmeka	tōka muika
17	*tə-wə amar-i nana-tu	tō-nanatu	tōnac	tō nanatsu	*tə-tari amar-i nana-tari	totai-nanatai	tōnattal	tōtari nanatari	*tə-uka amar-i nana-uka	tōka-nanoka	tōnoka	tōka nanoka
18	*tə-wə amar-i ya-tu	tō-yattu	tojac	tō yatsu	*tə-tari amar-i ya-tari	totai-yattai	tojatal	tōtari yatari	*tə-uka amar-i ya-uka	tōka-yauka	tojaka	tōka yōka
19	*tə-wə amar-i kəkənə-tu	tō-kokonotu	tokonoc	tō kokonotsu	*tə-tari amar-i kəkənə-tari	totai-kokonotai	tokonotal	tōtari kokonotari	*tə-uka amar-i kəkənə-uka	tōka-kokonoka	tokonoka	tōka kokonoka
20	*pata-ti	patachi	patač	hatachi	*pata-tari	patatai	patatal	hatatari	*pata-uka	patuka	patoka	hatsuka
30	*mi-son-ti	misoji	nəsuž	mishoji	*mi-so-tari	misotai	nəsutəl	mishotari	*mi-so-uka	misoka	nəsukə	mishoka
100	*momo	momo	mumu	momo	*momo-tari	momotai	mumutəl	momotari	*momo-uka	momoka	mumukə	momoka
200	*puta-po	putao	ftāpo	futō	*puta-po-tari	putaotai	ftāpotal	futōtari	*puta-po-uka	putaoka	ftāpoka	futōka
1,000	*ti	chi	čə (-č)	chi	*ti-tari	chitai	čāl	chitari	*ti-uka	chuka	čukə	chuka
10,000	*yərən-tu	yoyozu	joroz	yorozu	*yərən-tu-tari	yoyozutai	jorozzal	yorozutari	*yərən-tu-uka	yoyozuka	joroska	yorozuka

The word *pe ("a division", whence Old Japanese -pe₁; derivatives include *pen-tatay- "to separate") was likely a standalone noun in Proto-Japonic (and is, in some cases, still used as such in Japanese), but in all three featured languages has evolved into an additional classifier. The various forms are listed below:

Value	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
(indef.)	*eku-pe	ekue	ifpi	ekue
1	*pitə-pe	pitoe	stōpe	fichoe
2	*puta-pe	putae	ftāpe	futae
3	*mi-pe	mie	nəbi	mie
4	*yə-pe	yoe	jope	yoe
5	*itu-pe	etue	səppi	ichue
6	*mu-pe	mue	məbi	mue
7	*nana-pe	nanae	nanape	nanae
8	*ya-pe	yae	jape	yae
9	*kəkənə-pe	kokonoe	kokonope	kokonoe
10	*tə-pe	toe	tope	toe
11	*tə-pe amar-i pitə-pe	tōtoe	tostope	tōtoe
12	*tə-pe amar-i puta-pe	tōtae	toftape	tōtae
13	*tə-pe amar-i mi-pe	toe-mie	tōzape	toe mie
14	*tə-pe amar-i yə-pe	toe-yoe	tojope	toe yoe
15	*tə-pe amar-i itu-pe	toe-etue	toccape	toe ichue
16	*tə-pe amar-i mu-pe	toe-mue	tōmape	toe mue
17	*tə-pe amar-i nana-pe	toe-nanae	tōnape	toe nanae
18	*tə-pe amar-i ya-pe	toe-yae	tojape	toe yae
19	*tə-pe amar-i kəkənə-pe	toe-kokonoe	tokonope	toe kokonoe
20	*pata-pe	patae	patape	hatae
30	*mi-so-pe	misoe	nəsupi	mishoe
100	*momo-pe	momoe	mumupi	momoe
200	*puta-po-pe	putaowe	ftāpope	futōe
1,000	*ti-pe	chie	čpī	chie
10,000	*yərən-tu-pe	yoyozue	jorospe	yorozue

While numeral-classifier compounds are nouns in Namari and Tanmuran, they are verbal adjectives in New Kudara. Tanmuran and some Namari dialects allow numeral-classifier compounds to occur after the noun they modify.

Derivative forms

I reconstruct an ordinal suffix *-me? (which may be *-may instead; I have yet to determine which reconstruction is correct). This is reflected in Namari -me, New Kudara -me/-mi, and Tanmuran -me. All three languages also show a reflex of *patu ("first") which is the only ordinal I can reconstruct for Proto-Japonic (Namari: patu, New Kudara: pac, Tanmuran: hatsu).

Swadesh list

No	English	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
1	I	*wa-, *a	wae	ware	ware
2	thou	*na-?	nae	nare	nare
3	he	*ka-	shie	kare	kare
4	we	*wa-ta	waeya	watta	waira
5	you	*na-ta?	naeya	natta	naira
6	they	*ka-ta	shieya	katta	kaira
7	this	*kə-, *i-?	ie, koe	kore	kore
8	that	*ka-, *sə-	soe	ore, kare	ore, kare
9	here	*kə-kə	iki, koko	kof	koko
10	there	*sə-kə	soko	of, kaf	asoko, kaka
11	who	*ta-	tae	tare	tare
12	what	*na, *nə	nani, nan	nō	nau, nan
13	where	*en-tu	ezuku	iz	ezu
14	when	*e-tu	etu	ic	etsu
15	how	*e-ka	eka	ikə	eka
16	not	*-n-, *na-	-n, nān	-n, nēn	-n, nain
17	all	*so-?, *muina	sōte, mina	mul, nā	moro, mina
18	many	*əpə-	ōkai	oposam	ōi
19	some		sosshi	sušam	sokoi
20	few		sunne	sunnəsəm	sonai
21	other	*poka	poka	poka	foka
22	one	*pitə	pito	stō	ficho
23	two	*puta	puta	ftā	futa
24	three	*mi	mi	nə	mi
25	four	*yo	yo	jo	yo
26	five	*itu	etu	səc	ichu
27	big	*əpə-	ōkokai	opomasam	ōkī
28	long	*nanka-	nagakai	nagasam	nagai
29	wide	*pirə	pirokai	srōsam	firoi
30	thick	*atu-	atukai	accam	atsui
31	heavy	*əmə-	omokai	omosam	omoi
32	small		chīkakai, imi-	mīsəm	chishī
33	short		mijikakai	skasam	ijakai
34	narrow	*sem(p)a-	semakai	sibəsəm	semai
35	thin	*koma-ka-	komaka	kuməkəm	komai
36	woman	*wə-me-na(-nko)	onna, otome	onna f	onna, onago
37	man (male)	*wə-	otoko	wiku m	okonogo
38	man (human)	*pitə	pito	stō m	ficho
39	child	*warampe, *ko	wayabe	warabe f	warabe
40	wife	*tuma	tuma	cmā f	tsuma
41	husband	*wə-pitə	otto, tuma	osto m	otto
42	mother	*amo?, *pa-pa?	amo	ama f	haha
43	father	*si-si?	kazo	aso m	shishi
44	animal	*iki-mosi, *kay(-nta)-mənə	kemono	čœmuš n	kedamono
45	fish	*[u,o,i]wo	uo	uju n	io
46	bird	*təri	toi	tol f	tori
47	dog	*(w)enu	eni	in m	enu
48	louse	*sira-mi	shiyami	šrān n	shirami
49	snake	*pa(y)m-(p)[u,i]	pebi	pez n	hamu
50	worm	*mosi	moshi	muš n	moshi
51	tree	*kəy	kē	ki f	ke
52	forest	*məri	moi	mol f	mori
53	stick (of wood)	*yonta	eda, tue	judə m	tsue, yoda
54	fruit	*muy, *nar-i(-mənə)	mī, naimono	nalmon n, na f	nari
55	seed	*tanay	tane	tane m	tane
56	leaf	*pa	pa	pa f	ha
57	root	*nay	nē	ne n	ne
58	bark		kogā	kubədə n	kihada
59	flower	*pana	pana	pana f	hana
60	grass	*kusa	kusa	fsā m	kusa
61	rope	*tuna, *napa	tuna, nā	cnā f, napa m	tsuna, nawa
62	skin	*kapa	kā	kapa n	kawa
63	meat	*sisi	shishi	šœ n	shishi
64	blood	*ti?, *tuy?	chī	čə m	chi
65	bone	*pəne?	pone	pone m	fone
66	fat	*ampura	abuya	avra f	abura
67	egg	*taman-ko	tamago	tamago f	tamago
68	horn	*tuno	tuno	cnō m	tsuno
69	tail	*wo?	shû	ušəl f	shiru
70	feather	*panay	pane	pane m	hane
71	hair	*kay	(kamino) kē	(karano) ke m	(kamino) ke
72	head	*tumpu(-ri)	tubui, atama	cvəl f	tsubu
73	ear	*mimi	mimi	nən f	mimi
74	eye	*may	mē	me n	me
75	nose	*pana	pana	pana n	hana
76	mouth	*kutuy	kuchi	fəč m	kuchi
77	tooth	*pa	pa	pa n	ha
78	tongue	*sita	shita	šta f	shicha
79	fingernail	*tumay	tume	cmē m	tsume
80	foot	*asi	ashi	aš m	ashi
81	leg	*asi	ashi	aš m	ashi
82	knee	*pinsa	piza	zā m	pija
83	hand	*tay	tē	te f	te
84	wing	*tumpasa	tubasa	cvasa n	tsubasa
85	belly	*para	paya	para n	hara
86	guts	*wata	wata	wata f	wata
87	neck	*kumpi	kubi	fəz n	kubi
88	back	*səy	sē	se m	se
89	breast	*munay	mune	nē f	mune
90	heart	*kəkərə	kokoro	kokoro f	kokoro
91	liver	*kimo	kimo	čmū m	kimo
92	to drink	*nəm-	nomu	nobam	nomun
93	to eat	*kam-, *kup-	tabu, (kuwayu)	fafam	kamun
94	to bite	*kam-	kamu	kabam	kamun
95	to suck	*sop-	sou	sufəm	soun
96	to spit	*pak-	paku	pafam	hakun
97	to vomit	*pak-	paku	pafam	hakun
98	to blow	*puk-	puku	fəfəm	fukun
99	to breathe	*pak-	paku	pafam	hakun
100	to laugh	*warap-	wayau	warafam	waraun
101	to see	*mi-	mī	nərəm	miru
102	to hear	*kik-	kiku	čəfəm	kikun
103	to know	*sir-	shiyu	šərəm	shirun
104	to think	*əməp-	omou	omofam	omoun
105	to smell	*kaN[k,p]-	kagu	kavam	kabun
106	to fear	*əsər-ay-	osoyu	osoreram	osorerun
107	to sleep	*na-i-mur-	nemuyu	nenram	nemurun
108	to live	*ik-[u,o]y-	eku	səčrəm	ikiru
109	to die	*sin-, *maromp-	mayobu, shinu	šədəm, marovam	shinu
110	to kill	kərəs-	koyosu	korosam	korosun
111	to fight	*tatak-ap-	tatakau	tatakafam	tatakaun
112	to hunt	*kar-?	kayu	karam	karun
113	to hit	*tatak-	tataku	tatafam	tatakun
114	to cut	*kir-	kiyu	čərəm	kiru
115	to split	*war-	wayu	waram	warun
116	to stab	*sas-	sasu	sasam	sasun
117	to scratch	*kak-	kaku	kafam	kakun
118	to dig	*pər-	poyu	poram	porun
119	to swim	*əyənk-	oigu	ojvam	oigun
120	to fly	*təmp-	tobu	tovam	tobun
121	to walk	*ar[u,i]k-	aiku	arfam	arukun
122	to come	*kə-	kū	fəm	kun
123	to lie (down)	*na-y-	nei	neram	nerun
124	to sit	*wo-y-	suwayu, ī	wirəm	irun
125	to stand	*tat-	tatu	tatam	tatsun
126	to turn	*mapar-	māyu	maparam	mawarun
127	to fall	*ətə-y-	otu	oteram	oterun
128	to give	*tampay-?, *kur(y?)ay-?	atau	taberam, freram	taberun, kurerun
129	to hold	*mət-	motu	motam	motsun
130	to squeeze	*simpər-	shiboyu	švoram	shiborun
131	to rub	*sur-	-suru	kosram, nasram	-surun
132	to wash	*arap-	ayau	arafam	araun
133	to wipe	*səsər-?	sosoyu, sorru	sosoram	sosorun
134	to pull	*pik-	piku	səfəm	fikun
135	to push	*əs-	osu	osam	osun
136	to throw	*nankay-	nagu	nageram	nagerun
137	to tie	*musomp-	musobu	zūvam	musobun
138	to sew	*nup-?	nū	nufəm	nūn
139	to count	*kansu-apay-	kazou	kazoperam	kazoerun
140	to say	*ip-	iu	ifəm	iun
141	to sing	*uta-p-	utau	ftāfam	utaun
142	to play	*as[u,o]mp-	asobu	azvam	asobun
143	to float	*[u,o]k-	uku	fəfəm	ukun
144	to flow	*nanka-ray-	nagayu	nagareram	nagarerun
145	to freeze	*kəpər-	kōyu	koporam	kōrun
146	to swell	*puk-o?-ra-(m,y)	pukyamu, pukyu	fradam, freram	fukoramun, fukorerun
147	sun	*pi	pī	smar f	fi
148	moon	*tuk[u,o]y	tuki	cəč m	tsuki
149	star	*pəsi	poshi	poš n	foshi
150	water	*men-tu	mezu (mena)	miz (minə) f	mezu (mina)
151	rain	*amay	ame	ame f	ame
152	river	*kapa	kā	kapa m	kawa
153	lake		medōmi	mizūn f	mezomi
154	sea	*omi	omi	un f	omi
155	salt	*shipo	shio	špū n	shio
156	stone	*esoy	eshi	iš m	eshi
157	sand	*suna	suna	snā n	suna
158	dust	*tiri	chī	čəl f	chiri
159	earth	*tuti?, *[m,n]i-?	tuchi	zəč f	tsuchi
160	cloud	*kumo	kumo	fmū m	kumo
161	fog	*kuiri	kī	čəl f	kiri
162	sky	*sora	soya	surə n	sora
163	wind	*kansay	kaze	kaze n	kaze
164	snow	*yoki	yoki	juč f	yoki
165	ice	*kəpər-i	kōi	kopol f	kōri
166	smoke	*kaympu-[r,s]i	kebui	keval f	kebushi
167	fire	*poy	pī	sə m	pi
168	ash	*papi	pai	pas f	pai
169	to burn	*moya-y-	moyu	mujirəm	moerun
170	road	*mi-ti	michi	nəč m	michi
171	mountain	*yama	yama	yama m	yama
172	red	*aka	aka	aka(ero) n	aka(ero)
173	green	*awo	ao, medoi	aw(ero) n, mibə f	ao(ero), medori
174	yellow	*koy	kī (kieyo)	kīru n	ki (kīro)
175	white	*siro, sira-	shiyo	šrū(iru) (šrā-) n	shiro
176	black	*kuro	kuyo	frū(iru) n	kuro
177	night	*yo(-ru)	yo(yu)	ju(r) m	yo(ru)
178	day	*pi	pī	sə f	fi
179	year	*təsey	toshi	toš n	toshi
180	warm	*noku-	nokukai	nufsəm	nokui
181	cold	*sam-, *pi-	samukai, pitakai	samsam, stāsam	samui, fitai
182	full	*mitoy-	mitu	nəčrəm	michirun
183	new	*[m,n]ipi-	nīkai, ayata	zœsəm	nī-, aratashī
184	old	*puru-	puyukai	fərsəm	furui
185	good	*yə-	ei, yokai	ē, yotasam	ei, yoi
186	bad	*waru-	wayukai	warsam	warui
187	rotten	*kusar-	kusayu	fsāram	kusarun
188	dirty	*kitana-	kitanakai	čtanasam	kitanai
189	straight	*sunko	sugo-	skū-	sugo-
190	round	*maru-	mayukai	marsam	marui
191	sharp		suidokai	sərdusam	surudoi
192	dull	*nempu-	nebukai	nivsəm	nebui
193	smooth	*nam(p)e-	namekka	nabekka	nabekka
194	wet	*nuray-	nuyu	dreram	nurerun
195	dry	*kawak-	kauku	kōfam	kawakun
196	correct	*tantasi-	tadashi	tadašam	tadashī
197	near	*tika-	chikakai	čkāsam	chikai
198	far	*təpə-	tōkai	toposam	tōi
199	right	*[m,n]inki-ri	migī	gīl f	migi
200	left	*pin-tari	pidai	stāl f	fijari
201	at	*ni	(locative)	(locative)	(instrumental)
202	in	*ni	(locative)	(locative)	(instrumental)
203	with	*tə, *si	(comitative), (instrumental)	(comitative), (instrumental)	(comitative), (instrumental)
204	and	*tə	-to	-to/-tu	to
205	if	*-mpa	-ba	-ba/-bə	-ba
206	because		-kka	-kar	-kara
207	name	*na	na(mae)	na(mē) n	na(mae)

Family

English	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
family		yauchi	jōč n	uchinoya
parent	*əyə-a	oya	oja m	oya
mother	*amo?, *pa-pa?	amo	ama f	haha
father	*si-si?	kazo	aso m	shishi
child	*warampe, *ko	wayabe	warabe f	warabe
son		oyobe	wigəku m	otoko
daughter		maibe	migəku f	menoko
son-in-law	*moko	moko	muku m	moko
daughter-in-law	*yəme	yome	jome f	yome
older sibling	*sosa	sosa	susə n	sosa
older brother		okkonoe	wisu m	enoko
older sister		onnae	misu f	enome
younger sibling	*ətə	oto	oto n	oto
younger brother		otouto	wittu m	oshimoko
younger sister		imouto	mittu f	meshimome
cousin	*itoko	itoko	stūku f	ichoko
grandparent		oyamae	jamē n	sakinoya
grandfather		shimae	šəmī m	shinoya
grandmother		pamae	pamē f	hanoya
grandchild	*(m)uman-ko	mmago	māgo n	mago
grandson		umango	wemago m	magonoko
granddaughter		umamme	memago f	magonome
uncle	*wən-si	oji	ož m	oji
aunt	*wəm-pa	oba	oba f	oba
nephew	*wə-pi	oiko	osko m	oiko
niece	*me-pi	meiko	misku f	meiko

Time

English	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
time	*təki	toki	toč f	toki
day	*pi	pī	sə f	fi
night	*yo-ru	yo(yu)	ju(r) m	yo(ru)
dawn	*aka-(təki)	akatoki	ake f	akegata
morning	*asa	asa	asa f	asa
afternoon	*pi-ru	piyu	sər f	firu
dusk	*kura-(təki)	kuyatoki	frē f	kuregata
evening	*yupu	yū	if m	yū
month	*tuk[u,o]y	tuki	cəč m	tsuki
season	*kərə	koyo	koro f	koro
spring	*paru	payu	par f	haru
summer	*natu	natu	nac f	natsu
autumn	*ak-i	aki	ač f	aki
winter	*puyu	pui	fī f	fui
year	*təsey	toshi	toš n	toshi
three days ago	*saki wətə tu pi	sakiottoi	sačotoc f	sakiototsui
day before yesterday	*wətə tu pi	ottoi	otoc f	ototsui
yesterday	*ki nə pu	kinou	čənuf f	kinō
today	*ke pu	keu	kif f	kyō
tomorrow	*as-	asu	as f	asu
day after tomorrow	*asa-te?	asatte	asate f	asatte
two days after tomorrow	*si-asa-te?	shiasatte	šāsate f	shiasatte
previous morning		sakesa	sačasa f	sakesa
this morning	*ke-asa	kesa	kisə f	kesa
next morning	*asa-ita	ashita	ašta f	ashita
two years ago	*wətə-təsey	ottoshi	ototoš n	ototoshi
last year	*kənsə	kozo	kozo n	kozo
this year	*kə-təsey	kotoshi	kotoš n	kotoshi

In general, the following prefixes are used:

	-3	-2	-1	0	+1	+2	+3
Namari	sakiot(o)-	ot(o)-	saki-	ko-	akut-	tugakut-	shitugakut-
New Kudara	sačoto-/səčutu-	oto-/utu-	sač-/səč-	ko-/ku-	aka-/əkə-	skāka-/skœkə-	šaskaka-/šəskəkə-
Tanmuran	sakioto-	oto-	saki-	ko-	kuru-	tō-	shitō-

Months

So far, I can only reconstruct the names of two months for Proto-Japonic:

• *simə-tuk[u,o]y, for the eleventh month
• *si-pasu, for the twelfth month

For the Innocence Seekers setting, I've used the Japanese names and extended them to the other Japonic languages. They are listed below:

No	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
1	*mutu-tuk[u,o]y	mutuki	zœč	mutsuki
2	*kisaranki?	kisayagi	čāraž	kisharagi
3	*i-ya-əp-i	yayoi	šās	yāwi
4	*un-tuk[u,o]y?	uzuki	fcœč	uzuki
5	*sa-tuk[u,o]y	satuki	sačča	satsuki
6	*mi-nan-tuk[u,o]y	menazuki	nāžža	minazuki
7	*pun-tuk[u,o]y	puzuki, pumizuki	fəzəč	fuzuki
8	*pan-tuk[u,o]y	pazuki	pazač	hazuki
9	*nanka-tuk[u,o]y	nagatuki	nagačča	nagatsuki
10	*kamu-nan-tuk[u,o]y	kannazuki	kannažža	kannazuki
11	*simə-tuk[u,o]y	shimotuki	šmōčča	shimotsuki
12	*si-pasu	shiasu	špās	shiwasu

Note that all New Kudara forms are feminine ("yin"), even though "moon" itself is masculine ("yang").

Days of the week

Obviously, these cannot be reconstructed for Proto-Japonic, as the ancient Japonic speakers never had a concept of "week". However, the three languages featured do have the days of the week derived from words with similar meaning.

English	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Sunday	pinoi	osnas	ofikoro
Monday	tukonoi	cəfnus	tsukunofi
Tuesday	ponoi	spōšnos	fiboshi(nofi)
Wednesday	menai	nāpošnos	minafoshi(nofi)
Thursday	konoi	kibušnus	keboshi(nofi)
Friday	kananoi	kanebošnos	kanefoshi(nofi)
Saturday	tuchinoi	zəčpušnus	tsuchiboshi(nofi)

Geography

English	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
river	*kapa	kā	kapa m	kawa
lake		medōmi	mizūn f	mezomi
sea	*omi	omi	un f	omi
island	*sima	shima	šmā m	shima
mountain	*yama	yama	jama m	yama
forest	*məri	moi	mol f	mori
valley	*tani	tani	taz n	tani
meadow	*patakay	patake	patake n	hatake
field	*para	paya	para f	hara
cape	*(mi-)saki	misaki, saki	sač f, zāč f	saki, mishaki

Cardinal directions

The cardinal directions are in general unreconstructible for Proto-Japonic. The only words I can reconstruct with confidence are *nisi and *paye. Reflecting this, the three languages featured have some divergent forms.

English	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
north	*kami?	kami	kangata f	kicha
east	*a-?	pingai	pegal f	azuma
south	*paye?, *simo?	shimo	paj f	hae
west	*nisi?	nishi	žœ f	nishi

Place names

English	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Namari	(*namari)	Namai(kuni)	Namal(faz) f	Namari(kuni)
Japan	*yama-tə	Yamato(kuni)	Jamato(faz) m	Yamato(kuni)
Okinawa	(*əki-napa)	Okinā	Očnapa m	Okinawa

Conjugation

Being Insular Japonic languages, Namari and Tanmuran share a great deal of conjugational forms, while New Kudara, being Peninsular Japonic, is somewhat divergent.

The following compares conjugated forms of *ar- (inanimate existential) between languages:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*ar-i	ai	al	ari
Conclusive	*ar-	ai	am	an
Attributive	*ar-ro	ayo	aro	aro
Imperative	*ar-ryə	ae	ajo	are
Negative	*ar-an-	*ayan	aran	*aran
Prohibitive	*ar-ru-na	anna	arna	anna
Volitional	*ar-ram-ru	ayamu	aram	ara
Emphatic	*ar-ru-ay	ae(me)	are	are
Participle	*ar-i-tay	atte	ačče	atche

The copula is derived from *ar- (Namari ya from *i ar-, New Kudara tom from *tə ar-, Tanmuran nyan from *ni ar-). The negative of *ar- is only used in copular forms (Namari yān from *i pa ar-an- via earlier yayan, New Kudara taran from *tə pa ar-an-, Tanmuran nyaran from *ni pa ar-an-).

The following compares conjugated forms of *wor- (animate existential) between languages:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*wor-i	oi	ul	ori
Conclusive	*wor-	oi	um	on
Attributive	*wor-ro	oyo	uru	oro
Imperative	*wor-ryə	oe	uju	ore
Negative	*wor-an-	oyan	urən	oran
Prohibitive	*wor-ru-na	onna	urnə	onna
Volitional	*wor-ram-ru	oyamu	urəm	ora
Emphatic	*wor-ru-ay	oe(me)	uri	ore
Participle	*wor-i-tay	otte	učči	otche

The following compares conjugated forms of *kə- ("to come") between languages:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*k-i	ki	čə (č-)	ki
Conclusive	*k-ru	kū	fəm	kun
Attributive	*k-ro	kuyo	fru	kuro
Imperative	*kə(-ryə)	ko(yo)	ko	ko
Negative	*kə-n-	kon	kon	kon
Prohibitive	*k-ru-na	kunna	fərnə	kunna
Volitional	*kə-ram-ru	koyamu	koram	kora
Emphatic	*k-ru-ay	kue(me)	fre	kure
Participle	*k-i-tay	kite	čē	kiche

The following compares conjugated forms of *as- ("to do") between languages:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*as-i	shi	aš	shi
Conclusive	*as-ru	sū	səm	sun
Attributive	*as-ro	suyo	səru	suro
Imperative	*as-ryə	se(yo)	šo	se
Negative	*as-an-	sen	san	san
Prohibitive	*as-ru-na	sunna	sarna	sunna
Volitional	*as-ram-ru	seyamu	saram	sara
Emphatic	*as-ru-ay	sue(me)	sare	sure
Participle	*as-i-tay	shite	ašše	aiche

The following compares conjugated forms of *-n- (negative suffix) between languages:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*-n-i	-n	-z	-n
Conclusive	*-n-	-n	-n	-n
Attributive	*-n-ro	-n	-du/-do	-do
Volitional	*-n-ram-ru	-ndaman	-daman/-dəmən	-daman
Emphatic	*-n-ru-ay	-ne(me)	-de/-di	-de
Participle	*-n-i-tay	-nde	-žže/-žži	-nje

The regular conjugational classes, beginning with forms of *ankay- ("to rise"), forming the lower vowel-stem class:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*ankay-i	age	age	age
Conclusive	*ankai-ru	agu	ageram	agerun
Attributive	*ankai-ro	aguyo	agero	agero
Imperative	*ankai-ryə	ageyo	agejo	ageyo
Negative	*ankai-n-	agen	agen	agen
Prohibitive	*ankai-ru-na	agenna	agerna	agenna
Volitional	*ankai-ram-ru	ageyamu	ageram	agera
Emphatic	*ankay-ru-ay	ague(me)	agere	agere
Participle	*ankay-i-tay	agete	agete	agete

Forms of *sunkoy- ("to exceed, to surpass"), forming the upper vowel-stem class:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*sunkoy-i	sugi	səž	sugi
Conclusive	*sunkoi-ru	sugu	səžrəm	sugirun
Attributive	*sunkoi-ro	suguyo	səžru	sugiro
Imperative	*sunkoi-ryə	sugiyo	səžu	sugiyo
Negative	*sunkoi-n-	sugin	səžən	sugin
Prohibitive	*sunkoi-ru-na	suginna	səžərnə	suginna
Volitional	*sunkoi-ram-ru	sugiyamu	səžrəm	sugira
Emphatic	*sunkoi-ru-ay	sugue(me)	səžri	sugire
Participle	*sunkoy-i-tay	sugite	səžži	sugiche

Forms of *kak- ("to scratch, to write"), forming the k-stem class:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*kak-i	kaki	kač	kaki
Conclusive	*kak-ru	kaku	kafam	kakun
Attributive	*kak-ro	kako	kafro	kako
Imperative	*kak-ryə	kake	kačo	kake
Negative	*kak-an-	kakan	kakan	kakan
Prohibitive	*kak-ru-na	kakona	kafarna	kakuna
Volitional	*kak-ram-ru	kakamu	kafram	kaka
Emphatic	*kak-ru-ay	kake(me)	kafre	kake
Participle	*kak-i-tay	kaite	kačče	kaiche

Forms of *əyənk- ("to swim"), forming the g-stem class:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*əyənk-i	oigi	ojž	oigi
Conclusive	*əyənk-ru	oigu	ojvam	oigun
Attributive	*əyənk-ro	oigo	ojvro	oigo
Imperative	*əyənk-ryə	oige	ojžo	oige
Negative	*əyənk-an-	oigan	ojgan	oigan
Prohibitive	*əyənk-ru-na	oigona	ojvarna	oiguna
Volitional	*əyənk-ram-ru	oigamu	ojvram	oiga
Emphatic	*əyənk-ru-ay	oige(me)	ojvri	oige
Participle	*əyənk-i-tay	oiede	ojžže	oije

Forms of *pəs- ("to dry"), forming the s-stem class:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*pəs-i	poshi	poš	foshi
Conclusive	*pəs-ru	posu	posam	fosun
Attributive	*pəs-ro	poso	posro	foso
Imperative	*pəs-ryə	pose	pošo	fose
Negative	*pəs-an-	posan	posan	fosan
Prohibitive	*pəs-ru-na	posona	posarna	fosuna
Volitional	*pəs-ram-ru	posamu	posram	fosa
Emphatic	*pəs-ru-ay	pose(me)	posre	fose
Participle	*pəs-i-tay	poshite	počče	foiche

Forms of *mat- ("to wait"), forming the t-stem class:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*mat-i	machi	mač	machi
Conclusive	*mat-ru	matu	matam	matsun
Attributive	*mat-ro	mato	matro	mato
Imperative	*mat-ryə	mate	mačo	mate
Negative	*mat-an-	matan	matan	matan
Prohibitive	*mat-ru-na	matona	matarna	matuna
Volitional	*mat-ram-ru	matamu	matram	mata
Emphatic	*mat-ru-ay	mate(me)	matre	mate
Participle	*mat-i-tay	matte	mačče	matche

Forms of *sin- ("to die"), forming the n-stem class:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*sin-i	shini	šəz	shini
Conclusive	*sin-ru	shinu	šədəm	shinun
Attributive	*sin-ro	shino	šədru	shino
Imperative	*sin-ryə	shine	šəzu	shine
Negative	*sin-an-	shinan	šənən	shinan
Prohibitive	*sin-ru-na	shinona	šədərnə	shinuna
Volitional	*sin-ram-ru	shinamu	šədrəm	shina
Emphatic	*sin-ru-ay	shine(me)	šədri	shine
Participle	*sin-i-tay	shinde	šəžži	shinje

Forms of *warap- ("to laugh"), forming the p-stem class:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*warap-i	wayai	waras	warai
Conclusive	*warap-ru	wayau	warafam	waraun
Attributive	*warap-ro	wayao	warafro	warao
Imperative	*warap-ryə	wayae	waraso	warae
Negative	*warap-an-	wayān	warapan	warawan
Prohibitive	*warap-ru-na	wayaona	warafarna	warauna
Volitional	*warap-ram-ru	wayāmu	warafram	warawa
Emphatic	*warap-ru-ay	wayae(me)	warafre	warae
Participle	*warap-i-tay	wayaute	waračče	waratche

Forms of *təmp- ("to fly"), forming the b-stem class:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*təmp-i	tobi	toz	tobi
Conclusive	*təmp-ru	tobu	tovam	tobun
Attributive	*təmp-ro	tobo	tovro	tobo
Imperative	*təmp-ryə	tobe	tozo	tobe
Negative	*təmp-an-	toban	toban	toban
Prohibitive	*təmp-ru-na	tobona	tovarna	tobuna
Volitional	*təmp-ram-ru	tobamu	tovram	toba
Emphatic	*təmpi-ru-ay	tobe(me)	tovre	tobe
Participle	*təmp-i-tay	tonde	tožže	tonje

Forms of *yəm- ("to read"), forming the m-stem class:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*yəm-i	yomi	jon	yomi
Conclusive	*yəm-ru	yomu	jobam	yomun
Attributive	*yəm-ro	yomo	jobro	yomo
Imperative	*yəm-ryə	yome	jono	yome
Negative	*yəm-an-	yoman	joman	yoman
Prohibitive	*yəm-ru-na	yomona	jobarna	yomuna
Volitional	*yəm-ram-ru	yomamu	jobram	yoma
Emphatic	*yəm-ru-ay	yome(me)	jobre	yome
Participle	*yəm-i-tay	yonde	jožže	yonje

Forms of *kir- ("to cut"), forming the r-stem class:

Form	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Infinitive	*kir-i	kī	čəl	kiri
Conclusive	*kir-ru	kiyu	čərəm	kirun
Attributive	*kir-ro	kiyo	čəru	kiro
Imperative	*kir-ryə	kie	čəlu	kire
Negative	*kir-an-	kiyan	čərən	kiran
Prohibitive	*kir-ru-na	kinna	čərnə	kinna
Volitional	*kir-ram-ru	kiyamu	čərəm	kira
Emphatic	*kir-ru-ay	kie(me)	čəri	kire
Participle	*kir-i-tay	kitte	čəčči	kitche

Principal parts and base stems

Like most inflected languages, verbs in the three languages featured can be described using a number of principal parts. This is not to be confused with the concept of a "base stem", whose form can in some cases be determined entirely by the forms of other base stems.

Namari has the following base stems, using kaku and agu as examples:

Stem	kaku	agu	Principal part?
Imperfective 1	kaka	age	No
Imperfective 2	kaka	ageya	No
Infinitive	kaki	age	No
Conclusive	kaku	agu	Yes
Attributive	kako	aguyo	No
Perfective	kake	ague	No
Imperative	kake	ageyo	Yes
Participle	kaite	agete	No

New Kudara has the following base stems, using kafam and ageram as examples:

Stem	kafam	ageram	Principal part?
Conclusive	kafa-	agera-	Yes (-m)
Finite	kaf-	age-	No
Infinitive	kač-	age-	Yes
Negative	kak-	age-	Yes (-(a/ə)n)
Participle	kačč-	aget-	Yes (-e/-i)

Tanmuran has the following base stems, using kakun and agerun as examples:

Stem	kakun	agerun	Principal part?
Imperfective	kaka	age	No
Infinitive	kaki	age	No
Conclusive	kak-	ager-	Yes (-un)
Imperative	kake	ageyo	Yes
Participle	kaiche	agete	No

Tense and aspect

For Proto-Japonic, I can confidently reconstruct five aspects, the aorist, the stative, the progressive, the preparative and the experiential, as well as a possible perfect form. In all three languages featured, this perfect evolved into a simple past, and the aspects are retained. All of these forms are based on the participle *-tay.

The reflexes of each different form in the daughter languages are as follows:

	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Stative	*-tay-ar-	-tei	-tem/-tim	-tēn
Progressive	*-tai-wor-	-toi	-tom/-tum	-tōn
Preparative	*-tay-ək-	-toku	-tofam/-tufəm	-tokun
Experientive	*-tai-mi-	-temī	-tenram/-tinrəm	-temirun
Perfect	*-tar-	-ta	-tam/-təm	-tan

In Namari, the reflex of the stative and its progressive force ergative-absolutive alignment for nonpronominal subjects. Similarly, the New Kudara reflex uses a nominative/intransitive direct object in conjunction with an ergative subject. This behaviour is identical to the effect of the potential in these two languages. The Tanmuran reflex of the stative has passive semantics, and thus does not take a direct object.

All three languages featured also have a perfective-imperfective distinction, derived from the exact same construction (*-i wor-). Conventionally, the unmarked (aorist) aspect is the perfective, with the imperfective being marked. The forms are listed below:

• Namari: -yoi (derived from polite stem; conjugates identically to oi)
• New Kudara: -om/-um (attached to infinitive; conjugates identically to um)
• Tanmuran: -yon (attached to stem; conjugates identically to on)

I cannot reconstruct a past tense for Proto-Japonic. Classical Japanese had a preterite -ki (attributive -si) separate from the perfect -tari, but it appears that it is unique to Japanese; I cannot find any trace of this preterite in the Ryukyuan languages. Regardless, the languages featured do have tense. In addition to the past, Namari and New Kudara have a marked future, with the same etymology. The tenses and their Proto-Japonic origins are listed below:

	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Past	*-i-tar-	-ita	-(t)tam/-(t)təm	-icha/-ita
Future	*-ram-ro-i woy-	-(y)ami	-ranram/-rənrəm
Posterior Future	*-ram-ro-i woy-i-tar-	-(y)amitta	-rančam/-rənčəm

Mood

In general, mood in Japonic can be represented using three different strategies:

• Basic inflection
• Word-final suffix or particle
• Auxillary verb

Only the imperative, prohibitive and volitional use basic inflection, which are listed in the forms given above. The other moods use either word-final suffixes or particles, or auxillary verbs.

Word-final suffixes and particles

It is important to note that word-final suffixes do not exclusively denote mood (in all three languages, the gerund is formed by a word-final suffix, for example). Hence this section will only list the modal suffixes.

I can reconstruct an indicative suffix *-m(u) for Proto-Ryukyuan, but not Proto-Japonic (if it did exist in Proto-Japonic, then Japanese must have lost it). I cannot reconstruct any other word-final suffixes or particles representing mood.

The three languages use the following suffixes to mark mood:

	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Indicative	-	-m	-n
Interrogative	-ka	-ro/-ru/-ga/-gə	-mi/-ka
Inferential	-sō	-so/-su	-sau
Epistemic	-sa	-sa/-sə	-sa

While Namari has lost the polar/informative interrogative distinction, the other two languages featured still distinguish them. New Kudara uses the pair -ro/-ru for polar questions, and -ga/-gə for information questions. Similarly, Tanmuran uses -mi and -ka respectively in their roles.

In both New Kudara and Tanmuran, the unmarked mood is the subjunctive (however, the lemma uses the indicative), while in Namari it is the indicative (the inflected subjunctive is in very limited use and represented by an auxillary, although the unmarked subjunctive still affects agreement). Included are the indirect evidential suffixes; the inferential represents the realis indirect evidential (although semantically all indirect evidentials are irrealis, the inferential specifically indicates that the speaker has determined from indirect evidence that his/her utterance is true), while the epistemic (which would be called "potential", but this label is already used) is used for irrealis indirect evidentials.

The Namari and Tanmuran inferential suffix is actually a nominalising suffix; it must be suffixed by a form of the copula if used predicatively.

In all three languages, invocation of kakari-musubi (via the use of a focus marker) eliminates the word-final mood suffix outside of the interrogative. The existence of a declarative or exclamative focus marker (but not an interrogative focus marker) indicates that the verb is in the indicative.

Modal verbs

In addition to word-final suffixes and particles, modal verbs may be used to denote mood.

The desiderative mood I reconstruct as using the auxillary *pəsi- ("to want"), which is actually an adjective. It attaches to the infinitive.

Modal forms in all three languages are listed below:

	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Desiderative	*-in pəsi-	-iboshi	-bošam/-bušəm	-iboshī
Optative	*-ra-mpa yə-	-(y)abakai	-rabesam/-rəbisəm	-(r)abai

Unique to Namari is the negative volitional auxillary -makai, which attaches to the attributive. The other two languages use the standard negated form of the volitional form of the negative as their negative volitional (a similar form also exists in Namari).

All three languages feature a periphrastic form of the desiderative, derived from *-i-tay pəsi- (Namari -te poshi, New Kudara -te pošam/-ti pušəm, Tanmuran -te foshī). In this construction, the sentence "X wants Y to [do] Z", where "[do]" is any transitive verb, argument X is in the genitive in Namari, ergative in New Kudara and nominative in Tanmuran, while Y is in the nominative in Namari, intransitive/nominative in New Kudara and nominative in Tanmuran. Z remains in the accusative in all three languages.

Voice

I reconstruct a causative *-(s)as- and a passive *-(r)aryay-, both of which attach directly to the stem. There reflexes are as follows:

	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Causative 1	*-(s)as-(ay)-	-(s)asu	-(s)asam/-(s)əsəm	-(s)asun
Causative 2	*-simay-		šmeram	shimerun
Passive	*-(r)aryay-	-(y)ayu	-(r)areram/-(r)ərirəm	-(r)arerun
Potential	*-i wo ay-	-yōu	-uwirəm/-oweram	-(i)werun

The potential can be considered a voice in Namari, due to its split-ergative nature, and also possesses passive properties in other Japonic languages. However, the three languages featured do feature a potential descended from the same Proto-Japonic form. In all three languages, the potential of "to do" is suppletive (Namari deku, New Kudara dečram, Tanmuran dekerun).

Even though New Kudara is tripartite, there is no antipassive. Instead, if the ergative argument is omitted, then marking the patient using the accusative case is optional.

Agreement

In general, the Japonic languages lack agreement between the verb and its arguments. However, many Japonic languages do have optional "directionality" agreement, using various forms of "to give" attached to the participle as auxillaries.

Directionality in Japonic is based on the person of the subject and the person of the beneficiary (not necessarily the direct object). If the person of the beneficiary is lower than that of the subject (e.g. first person beneficiary and third person subject), then the marked form is used. The "passive" forms listed below are used when the subject is omitted; this form is typically used for first person beneficiaries. The forms used are listed below:

	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Unmarked	*-tay tampay-	-te agu, -te tabu	-te taberam, -ti təbirəm	-te taberun
Marked	*-tay kur(y?)ay-	-te kuyu	-te freram, -ti frirəm	-te kurerun
Passive	*-tay morap-	-te moyau	-te morafam, -ti murəfəm	-te moraun

The marked forms are the basis of polite requests:

• Namari: -te kueyo, from *-tay kuray-ryə; -te kuyäbē, from *-tay kuray pampi-ar-ryə; -te kudasae, borrowed from Japanese
• New Kudara: -te frejo/-ti friju, from *-tay kuray-ryə; -te frebelo/-ti fribilu, from *-tay kuray pampi-ar-ryə
• Tanmuran: -te kure, from *-tay kuray-ryə; -te kurebere, from *-tay kuray pampi-ar-ryə; -te kudasai, borrowed from Japanese

Note: the form *kuryay- is my conjecture on the etymology of Okinawan kwiyun, which would have had a preform *kuye-.

Only Namari shows proper subject-verb agreement. In this case, most of the suffixes are borrowed from non-Japonic languages, and as such I will not mention them here.

Verbal adjectives

Unlike normal verbs, verbal adjectives do not conjugate for aspect or voice. They also have additional forms unique to adjectives:

	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Adverb	*-ku	-ku	-f(a/ə)	-ku
Participle	*-ku-tay	-kute	-(a)fte/-(ə)fti	-kute
Degree (meas.)	*-sa	-sa/-sha	-sa/-sə/-ša/-šə	-sa/-sha
Degree (immeas.)	*-mi	-mi	-(a/ə)n	-mi

Only Namari and New Kudara possess comparative forms for adjectives; Tanmuran generally leaves comparatives unmarked. This form is derived from *-ku mə ar-, giving Namari -kumoi and New Kudara -(a)fmoram or -(ə)fmurəm. All three languages have superlative forms for adjectives, but they are derived differently:

• Namari: from *-ku mə taka-, whence -kumotakakai
• New Kudara: from *-ku mage-, whence -(a)fmagesam or -(ə)fməgisəm.
• Tanmuran: from *-ku-tay əpə-, whence -kutōi

Negatives are formed differently from normal verbs, and as usual, they conjugate for "tense":

	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Present	*-ku pa na-n-	-pan	-fanēn/-fənīn	-kanain
Perfect/Past	*-ku pa na-n-i-tar-	-panda	-fanēžžam/-fənīžžəm	-kanainjan

New Kudara, unlike the other Japonic languages in Innocence Seekers (except certain dialects of Namari), has gender, and this is reflected in the form of verbal (and nominal) adjectives used. Verbal adjectives (but not verbs) have different forms in the conclusive and attributive depending on gender. The "yin" gender, or feminine, is the default in New Kudara, and is used for the lemma.

	New Kudara			Proto-Japonic			Namari cognates
	Conclusive	Attributive	Emphatic	Conclusive	Attributive	Emphatic	Conclusive	Attributive	Emphatic	Notes
Present
Feminine ("yin")	-sam/-səm	-saro/-səru	-sare/-səri	*-sa ar-	*-sa ar-ro	*-sa ar-ru-ay				Unattested in Namari and Tanmuran.
Masculine ("yang")	-(a/ə)š	-ke/-ki	-kere/-kiri	*-si	*-ke	*-ke-ru-ay	-shi	-ke	-kē	This is also the base of Tanmuran -i and -ke.
Neuter	-fam/-fəm	-faro/-fəru	-fare/-fəri	*-ku ar-	*-ku ar-ro	*-ku ar-ru-ay	-kai	-kayo	-kae	The Namari attributive form is rare.
Past
Feminine ("yin")	-saččam/-səččəm	-saččaro/-səččəru	-saččare/-səččəri	*-sa ar-i-tar-	*-sa ar-i-tar-ro	*-sa ar-i-tar-ru-ay				Unattested in Namari and Tanmuran.
Masculine ("yang")	-(a)ftam/-(ə)ftəm	-(a)ftaro/-(ə)ftəru	-(a)ftare/-(ə)ftəri	*-ku-tar-	*-ku-tar-ro	*-ku-tar-ru-ay				Unattested in Namari and Tanmuran.
Neuter	-faččam/-fəččəm	-faččaro/-fəččəru	-faččare/-fəččəri	*-ku ar-i-tar-	*-ku ar-i-tar-ro	*-ku ar-i-tar-ru-ay	-katta	-kattayo	-kattae
Future
Feminine ("yin")	-saranram/-sərənrəm	-saranro/-sərənru	-saranre/-sərənri	*-sa ar-ram-i-woy-ru	*-sa ar-ram-i-woy-ro	*-sa ar-ram-i-woy-ru-ay
Masculine ("yang")	-kenram/-kinrəm	-kenro/-kinru	-kenre/-kinri	*-ke-ram-i-woy-ru	*-ke-ram-i-woy-ro	*-ke-ram-i-woy-ru-ay	-kemi	-kemiyo	-kemie
Neuter	-faranram/-fərənrəm	-faranro/-fərənru	-faranre/-fərənri	*-ku ar-ram-i-woy-ru	*-ku ar-ram-i-woy-ro	*-ku ar-ram-i-woy-ru-ay
Posterior Future
Feminine ("yin")	-sarančam/-sərənčəm	-sarančaro/-sərənčəru	-sarančare/-sərənčəri	*-sa ar-ram-i-woy-i-tar-	*-sa ar-ram-i-woy-i-tar-ro	*-sa ar-ram-i-woy-i-tar-ru-ay
Masculine ("yang")	-kenčam/-kinčəm	-kenčaro/-kinčəru	-kenčare/-kinčəri	*-ke-ram-i-woy-i-tar-	*-ke-ram-i-woy-i-tar-ro	*-ke-ram-i-woy-i-tar-ru-ay	-kemitta	-kemittayo	-kemittae
Neuter	-farančam/-fərənčəm	-farančaro/-fərənčəru	-farančare/-fərənčəri	*-ku ar-ram-i-woy-i-tar-	*-ku ar-ram-i-woy-i-tar-ro	*-ku ar-ram-i-woy-i-tar-ru-ay

Note that negative and comparative forms of verbal adjectives do not have gendered forms.

Nominal morphology

Number

All languages featured have singular and plural number, while Namari also has a dual. Both Namari and Tanmuran also feature a collective separate from the plural, while New Kudara combines the two.

	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Dual		-na	-(t)ta/-(t)tə	-ra
Plural	*-ta	-ya
Collective	*-ta-ti	-tachi		-tachi

In all cases, number is not marked if the noun is explicitly modified by a numeral. The New Kudara plural suffix is -tta/-ttə after a noun ending in a vowel, and -ta/-tə after nouns ending in a non-coronal or non-obstruent consonant. However, if the word-final consonant is a coronal obstruent (/t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /ɕ/, /ʑ/, /t͡s/, /t͡ɕ/), the /t/ assimilates to this consonant, forming a geminate.

Case

The three languages featured have a variable number of cases. Namari has thirteen cases, New Kudara eleven, and Tanmuran ten. However, they vary slightly.

The following table lists the cases and their possible Proto-Japonic markers:

	Proto-Japonic	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Ergative	*i?	-i	-j/-i/-e	(Null)
Intransitive	*(Null)		(Null)
Accusative	*wo	-o	-o/-u	-o
Vocative	*yə?	-yo/(Null)
Genitive	*nə/*na/*nka	-no/-na/-ga	-no/-nu/-ga/-gə/-na/-nə	-no/-ga/-na
Dative	*ni	-n(i)	-(a/ə)z	-n(i)
Instrumental	*si	-ji	-(a/ə)š	-se
Comitative	*tə	-to	-to/-tu	-to
Ablative 1	*yo-ri	-yoi	-(j)ol/-(j)ul	-yori
Ablative 2	*kara	-kaya		-kara
Allative	*pe	-(m)pe	-e/-i	-e
Terminative	*man-te?	-made	-made/-mədi	-made
Locative		-(n)de	-(a/ə)d
Abessive		-(n)ku

Note that the "ergative" is simply a label corresponding to its role in New Kudara; I am actually unsure of the morphosyntactic alignment of Proto-Japonic (New Kudara is tripartite). Not listed above is the pronominal nominative suffix *-re?, which is realised as -e in Namari, -re/-ri in New Kudara and -re in Tanmuran.

In all three languages, which genitive to use is determined by the animacy of the noun. Typically, animates use the reflex of *nka, while inanimates use the reflex of *nə. The marker *na is vestigial in all three languages.

Namari has three declensional classes, and is unique in that its nouns can alternate between /i/-suffixed and bound forms in declension (this is the basis of the Namari second declension). Namari has a few irregular nouns, which retain things such as irregular genitives or diphthongal pronunciation in the dative.

New Kudara does not have declensional classes per se, but there are rules that need to be followed when declining for case:

• The lemma is the intransitive case.
• The ergative case uses -e or -i when the noun stem ends in a consonant.
• Likewise, the accusative case uses -o or -u in the same environment.
• If the noun stem ends in a vowel, the ablative suffix begins with -j-; otherwise it is omitted.
• If the noun ends in a consonant, the dative, instrumental and locative have an epenthetic /a/ or /ə/ added.
• If the noun ends in -a or -ə, they are replaced by long variants of the ergative and accusative suffixes.
• If the noun ends in -e or -i, they become nonsyllabic -j- before the accusative -o or -u.
• If the noun ends in -o or -u, the ergative is simply -j.
• If the noun ends in a long vowel, hiatus is always inserted between the stem and the ergative/accusative.
• The allative suffix always inserts a hiatus after a vowel.
• Vowel harmony must be observed.

Tanmuran nouns do not properly decline; they are generally invariant with respect to case markers. However, there are exceptions (e.g. kami becomes kanna and mezu becomes mina in the genitive).

Pronouns work differently from nouns. A comparison of forms between the languages is listed below (using the first person singular pronoun):

	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Nominative	wae	ware	ware
Accusative	wao	wō	wau
Genitive	waga	waga	waga
Dative	wan	wez	wen
Instrumental	waji	weš	wasse
Comitative	wato	wato	watto
Ablative 1	wai	wōl	weri
Ablative 2	wakaya		wakara
Allative	wampe	wē	wappe
Terminative	wamade	wamade	wamade
Locative	wande	wad
Abessive	wanku

The other personal pronouns decline identically. The demonstrative ka- declines similarly, except in the genitive, where the form depends on animacy (and in the New Kudara accusative, whose form is kaw).

The demonstrative ko-, which is more regular, declines as follows:

	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Nominative	koe	kore	kore
Accusative	kō	kō	kou
Genitive	kono	kono	kono
Dative	kon	koz	kon
Instrumental	koji	koš	kosse
Comitative	koto	koto	kotto
Ablative 1	koyoi	kojol	kori
Ablative 2	kokaya		kokara
Allative	kompe	koj	koppe
Terminative	komade	komade	komade
Locative	konde	kod
Abessive	konku

The same applies to the other /o/ demonstratives and the interrogative (although vowel harmony applies in New Kudara).

The New Kudara pronoun šrī ("she") declines as follows:

Nominative	šrī
Accusative	šū
Genitive	škœ
Dative	šəz
Instrumental	šiš
Comitative	štū
Ablative	šul
Allative	šī
Terminative	šmədi
Locative	šəd

New Kudara is the only featured language to have gendered third-person pronouns; Namari shie is used regardless of gender or animacy, while Tanmuran kare applies to both males and females (inanimates use the general demonstrative sore; a word kanojo meaning "she" does exist in Tanmuran, but it is borrowed from Japanese and rarely used). The New Kudara gendered pronouns are kare ("he"), šrī ("she") and suri ("it").

Nominal adjectives

All three languages featured have nominal adjectives whose properties are separate from nouns. In all languages, nominal adjectives must be paired with the copula in order to act predicatively. When acting adnominally, they take the genitive. However, the form of the genitive does not necessarily match that of a normal noun, and varies between languages:

• Namari nominal adjectives have their genitives influenced by a limited vowel harmony rule, with -na used when the word has /a/, /u/ or their derivatives, and -no otherwise.
• New Kudara nominal adjectives have their genitives vary depending on the gender of the noun it modifies. The default is -na/-nə for the feminine, with the masculine being -ga/-gə and the neuter being -no/-nu.
• Tanmuran nominal adjectives generally have their genitives in -na.

All nominal adjectives form their degree forms the same way as their verbal counterparts, and use the dative as adverbial forms. The comparative and superlative forms of the nominal adjectives are listed below:

	Namari	New Kudara	Tanmuran
Comparative	-moi	-moram/-murəm
Superlative	-motakakai	-magesam/-məgisəm	-nyōi

Other markers

All three languages feature a topic marker and a focus marker. The topic marker is *pa in Proto-Japonic, which is reflected in Namari -(h)a, New Kudara -a/-ə and Tanmuran -wa. I tentatively reconstruct the focus particle as *sə, and this is reflected in Namari -zu and -koso, New Kudara -zo/-zu and -koso/-kusu, and Tanmuran -zo and -koso. I cannot reconstruct any other focus markers at the moment, although additional markers do exist.

The focus marker has the property of changing the inflection of the main verb. In a normal declarative sentence, the main verb is in its conclusive form. However, the existence of a focus marker forces the main verb to take a different conjugation instead (in the case of -zo/-zu, it is the attributive, and in the case of -koso/-kusu, it is an emphatic form).

The New Kudara topic marker has special forms when combined with case markers (except the genitive, which cannot combine with the topic marker):

	Proto-Japonic	New Kudara
Ergative	*i pa	-ja/-jə/-i/-e
Intransitive	*pa	-a/-ə
Accusative	*wo(n) pa	-oba/-ubə
Dative	*ni pa	-za/-zə
Instrumental	*si pa	-ša/-šə
Comitative	*tə pa	-ta/-tə
Ablative	*yo-ri pa	-(j)ola/-(j)ulə
Allative	*pe pa	-ea/-iə
Terminative	*man-te pa	-maža/-məžə
Locative		-da/-də

The pronominal nominative -re/-ri becomes -la/-lə when topicalised.

The New Kudara pronoun šrī ("she") has special topicalised forms:

Nominative	šlœ
Accusative	šubə
Dative	zœ
Instrumental	šœ
Comitative	štœ
Ablative	šulə
Allative	šijə
Terminative	šməžə
Locative	šnœ