Durygan language

The Durygan language (Durygan: lemba durygana, Nillonan: lemba durygana) is a language spoken in the southern region of the continent of Nodaima.

One thing many have noticed about Durygan is that sound changes have drastically altered the words and phonology of the language to a greater extent even than what would be expected for a Nodaimese Romance language. An often used example to show the magnitude of the divergent sound changes is the numeral for "four" (Durygan: šatir, Nillonan: patro, Umirian: quaitter; cf. Latin quattuor); in this example, the fact that Durygan is a P-Romance language is obscured by the /pʲ/ → /ɕ/ sound change (original /kʷ/ became /p/, and stressed /a/ caused palatalisation). Another example is /stʲ/ → /çs/ (as seen in jsela; cf. Nillonan ťella, Umirian stiella, ultimately deriving from Latin stella).

Grammar

Nouns

Nouns have four cases, two numbers, and three genders.

Durygan has the following cases (Durygan: času):

• The nominative case (Durygan: numnjasvu) indicates the subject of the sentence.
• The accusative case (Durygan: akyšasvu) indicates the direct object of the sentence. It can also be used as the object of a preposition.
• The genitive case (Durygan: ženjesvu) indicates the possessor or a modifier of another noun. It can also be used as the object of a preposition, and it now governs many of the prepositions once governed by the ablative case (Durygan: abjasvu).
• The dative case (Durygan: zasvu) indicates the indirect object of the sentence. It can also be used as the object of a preposition.

Some nouns, particularly names, may possess a separate vocative case (Durygan: vučasvu).

First declension:

	Singular	Plural
Nominative	jsela	jsele
Accusative	jsela	jselej
Genitive	jselješ	jseljari
Dative	jselje	jseljaw

For first declension nouns, the oblique form (genitive and dative cases) is palatalised.

Second declension:

	Singular	Plural
Nominative	myru	myži
Accusative	myri	myruj
Genitive	myžiš	myrori
Dative	myry	myrow

Second declension neuter:

	Singular	Plural
Nominative	wovi	wova
Accusative	wovi	wova
Genitive	wojiš	wovori
Dative	wovy	wovow

In the second declension, the nominative plural ending for masculine and feminine nouns and the genitive singular ending palatalise the stem. If this results in a bare /j/ for the masculine and feminine nominative plural, then the ending is absorbed into the stem.

Third declension:

	Singular	Plural
Nominative	noj	noče
Accusative	noč	nočej
Genitive	nočeš	nočiri
Dative	noči	nočew

For third declension masculine and feminine nouns, the nominative singular often uses a separate stem from the rest of the declension.

Third declension neuter:

	Singular	Plural
Nominative	sempu	sempoža
Accusative	sempu	sempoža
Genitive	sempožeš	sempožiri
Dative	sempoži	sempožew

All neuter nouns have identical nominative and accusative forms.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Unlike all nouns and most pronouns, the first and second person pronouns and the reflexive pronoun have a separate instrumental case (Durygan: ẽstrymẽsal). For all other pronouns and for all nouns, the instrumental case is marked using the preposition kon in combination with the genitive case.

	First		Second		Third						Reflexive
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular			Plural
					Masc.	Fem.	Neut.	Masc.	Fem.	Neut.
Nominative	jo	nu	ty	vu	ilj	elja	ly	elj	elje	lja
Accusative	mje	noj	se	voj	li	lja	ly	luj	lej	lja	še
Genitive	mij	nošč	tyj	vošč	ljuš			lori	ljari	lori	syj
Dative	mej	now	sej	vow	lu	lje	lu	low	ljaw	low	šej
Instrumental	meki	noski	seki	voski							šeki

Possessive pronouns

All possessive pronouns decline like normal adjectives, and agree with the number, gender and case of the possessee. Note that the third person possessive pronouns are not marked for the gender of the possessor. The forms given are the masculine nominative singular, and the masculine/neuter genitive singular.

	First	Second	Third
Singular	mivu	tyvu	syvu
	mijiš	tyjiš	syjiš
Plural	nostru	vostru	loru
	noščiš	voščiš	ložiš

Relative and interrogative pronouns

Durygan merged the relative and interrogative pronouns. Like the first and second person pronouns, the relative/interrogative pronouns have a separate instrumental form.

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	ši		še		po	še
Accusative	šje	poj	ša	šaj	po	še
Genitive	kyvu	pori	kyvu	šari	kyvu	pori
Dative	ky	šiw	ky	šiw	ky	šiw
Instrumental	šiki	šyski	šaki	šyski	poki	šyski

Adjectives

In Durygan, all adjectives (with the exception of numerals and comparatives) decline identically.

Declension of bonu:

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	bonu	bonj	bona	bone	boni	bona
Accusative	boni	bonuj	bona	bonej	boni	bona
Genitive	bonjiš	bonori	bonješ	bonjari	bonjiš	bonori
Dative	bony	bonow	bonje	bonjaw	bony	bonow

Most adjectives have two adverbial forms. The short form is formed by removing the ending (e.g. malu → mal), while the long form is formed by adding the ending -amens (e.g. novu → novamens). Note that bonu and malu do not have long forms, and that bonu has an irregular adverbial form (bonu → žen).

Comparatives and superlatives

Most adjectives have comparative and superlative forms. The superlative is formed by adding the suffix -išmu to the palatalised stem, which then declines like a normal adjective. The comparative is declined as follows (note that all forms palatalise the stem; the adverbial form is identical to the neuter nominative/accusative singular):

	Masc./Fem.		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	-ir	-ože	-u	-oža
Accusative	-ož	-ožej	-u	-oža
Genitive	-ožeš	-ožiri	-ožeš	-ožiri
Dative	-oži	-ožew	-oži	-ožew

A number of adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms. In particular, the comparatives of bonu and malu, which are mejr and šejr respectively, decline irregularly:

Declension of mejr:

	Masc./Fem.		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	mejr	meljože	mjew	meljoža
Accusative	meljož	meljožej	mjew	meljoža
Genitive	meljožeš	meljožiri	meljožeš	meljožiri
Dative	meljoži	meljožew	meljoži	meljožew

Declension of šejr:

	Masc./Fem.		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	šejr	šjože	šjew	šjoža
Accusative	šjož	šjožej	šjew	šjoža
Genitive	šjožeš	šjožiri	šjožeš	šjožiri
Dative	šjoži	šjožew	šjoži	šjožew

Numerals

All cardinal numerals can be declined for case.

	1			2			3
	Masc.	Fem.	Neut.	Masc.	Fem.	Neut.	M/F	Neut.
Nominative	wynu	wyna	wyni	dyw	dyj	dyw	če	ča
Accusative	wyni	wyna	wyni	dyvu	dyve	dyw	čej	ča
Genitive	wynjiš	wynješ	wynjiš	bori	bari	bori	čiri
Dative	wyny	wynje	wyny	bow	baw	bow	čew

For all numbers from 4 to 99 (except additive compounds with 1 or 2), the nominative and accusative forms are identical. Only additive compounds with 1, 2 or 3 decline for gender.

	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18	19
Nominative	šatir	čenš	šej	šesi	oči	noj	zeči	wenziči	boziči	čeziči	šapoziči	šenziči	šejziči	zešesi	zečoči	zenoj
Genitive	šatri	čenši	šejri	šesiri	očiri	nojri	zečiri	wenzičiri	bozičiri	čezičiri	šapozičiri	šenzičiri	šejzičiri	zešesiri	zečočiri	zenojri
Dative	šatruw	čenšuw	šejw	šesiw	očiw	nojw	zečiw	wenzičiw	bozičiw	čezičiw	šapozičiw	šenzičiw	šejzičiw	zešesiw	zečočiw	zenojw

	20	30	40	50	60	70	80	90
Nominative	jens	čent	parent	čempent	šesent	šetent	očent	nonent
Genitive	jensri	čentri	parentri	čempentri	šesentri	šetentri	očentri	nonentri
Dative	jensuw	čentuw	parentuw	čempentuw	šesentuw	šetentuw	očentuw	nonentuw

The hundreds and thousands inflect as if they were normal adjectives.

	100			200			1000			2000
	Masc.	Fem.	Neut.	Masc.	Fem.	Neut.	Masc.	Fem.	Neut.	Masc.	Fem.	Neut.
Nominative	čentu	čenta	čenti	dyčensi	dyčente	dyčenta	milu	mila	mili	dyw milj	dyj milje	dyw mila
Accusative	čenti	čenta	čenti	dyčentuj	dyčentej	dyčenta	mili	mila	mili	dyvu miluj	dyve milej	dyw mila
Genitive	čensiš	čenseš	čensiš	dyčentori	dyčensari	dyčentori	miljiš	milješ	miljiš	bori milori	bari miljari	bori milori
Dative	čenty	čense	čenty	dyčentow	dyčensaw	dyčentow	mily	milje	mily	bow milow	baw miljaw	bow milow

The hundreds from 300 to 900 decline identically to 200 and are listed below:

300	400	500	600	700	800	900
čečensi	pačenjensi	šinjensi	šešensi	šesenjensi	očenjensi	nonjensi

One million is miljonu, one billion is miljardu, and so on (Durygan uses the long scale).

Note that for numerals whose values are at least 2000, the noun denoted by the numeral will be in the genitive plural. For example, to say "2000 horses have come" and "I have 2000 horses", one would say dyw milj epori son jenjisi and aj dyvu miluj epori respectively, instead of *dyw milj eši son jenjisi and *aj dyvu miluj epuj respectively.

All ordinal numbers inflect as if they were normal adjectives.

1st	2nd	3rd	4th	5th	6th	7th	8th	9th	10th	11th	12th	13th	14th	15th	16th	17th	18th	19th
pšimu	šekondu	sersu	šartu	šentu	šestu	šesmu	očavu	nonu	zečmu	wenzičmu	bozičmu	čezičmu	šapozičmu	šenzičmu	šejzičmu	zešesmu	zečočavu	zenonu

For all other numerals, the ordinal is formed by adding -mu to the numeral (for multiples of 10) or replacing the ending with -ešmu (for hundreds and thousands and larger numbers). Additive compounds have all numerals in the ordinal form.

Verbs

First conjugation:

	Singular			Plural
	First	Second	Third	First	Second	Third
Indicative
Present	jami	jamaš	jama	jamamu	jamasi	jaman
Imperfect	jamavaj	jamavaš	jamava	jamajamu	jamajasi	jamavan
Past	jamej	jameč	jamow	jamemu	jameči	jameron
Future	jamari	jamažiš	jamaži	jamažimu	jamažisi	jamaron
Conditional	jameri	jamežiš	jameži	jamežimu	jamežisi	jamežen
Subjunctive
Present	jami	jameš	jame	jamemu	jamesi	jamen
Past	jameši	jamešiš	jameše	jamešimu	jamešisi	jamešen
Imperative
		jam		jamam	jamas
Non-finite forms
Infinitive	jamar
Pres. part.	jamanj
Pst. part.	jamatu
Gerund	jamandi

The above is an example of a stem-invariant regular first conjugation verb.

	Singular			Plural
	First	Second	Third	First	Second	Third
Indicative
Present	kanti	kantaš	kanta	kansamu	kansasi	kantan
Imperfect	kansavaj	kansavaš	kansava	kantajamu	kantajasi	kansavan
Past	kansej	kanseč	kansow	kansemu	kanseči	kanseron
Future	kansari	kansažiš	kansaži	kansažimu	kansažisi	kansaron
Conditional	kanseri	kansežiš	kanseži	kansežimu	kansežisi	kansežen
Subjunctive
Present	kansi	kanseš	kanse	kansemu	kansesi	kansen
Past	kanseši	kansešiš	kanseše	kansešimu	kansešisi	kansešen
Imperative
		kant		kansam	kansas
Non-finite forms
Infinitive	kansar
Pres. part.	kansanj
Pst. part.	kansatu
Gerund	kansandi

This verb shows variations in its forms due to stress-induced palatalisation, but is otherwise a regular first conjugation verb.

Irregular verbs

Conjugation of ješer:

	Singular			Plural
	First	Second	Third	First	Second	Third
Indicative
Present	su	ješ	je	somu	ječi	son
Imperfect	jeraj	jeraš	jera	ježamu	ježasi	jeran
Past	fyj	fyč	fyw	fymu	fyči	fyron
Future	jeri	ježiš	ježi	ježimu	ježisi	jeron
Conditional	fyri	fyžiš	fyži	fyžimu	fyžisi	fyžen
Subjunctive
Present	ši	šiš	še	šimu	šisi	šen
Past	fyši	fyšiš	fyše	fyšimu	fyšisi	fyšen
Imperative
		ješ		som	ječ
Non-finite forms
Infinitive	ješer
Pres. part.	šenj
Pst. part.	jesytu
Gerund	šendi

Conjugation of jsar:

	Singular			Plural
	First	Second	Third	First	Second	Third
Indicative
Present	sto	jsaš	jsa	jsamu	jsasi	jsan
Imperfect	jsavaj	jsavaš	jsava	stajamu	stajasi	jsavan
Past	jsesi	jsesič	jsesu	jsesimu	jsesiči	jsesiron
Future	jsari	jsažiš	jsaži	jsažimu	jsažisi	jsaron
Conditional	jsesiri	jsesižiš	jsesiži	jsesižimu	jsesižisi	jsesižen
Subjunctive
Present	jse	jseš	jse	jsemu	jsesi	jsen
Past	jsesiši	jsesišiš	jsesiše	jsesišimu	jsesišisi	jsesišen
Imperative
		jsa		jsam	jsas
Non-finite forms
Infinitive	jsar
Pres. part.	jsanj
Pst. part.	jsatu
Gerund	jsandi

Conjugation of ajer:

	Singular			Plural
	First	Second	Third	First	Second	Third
Indicative
Present	aj	jaš	jaj	ažemu	ažesi	ajen
Imperfect	aivaj	aivaš	aiva	aijamu	aijasi	aivan
Past	ovyj	ovyč	ovyw	ovymu	ovyči	ovyron
Future	ajeri	aježiš	aježi	aježimu	aježisi	ajeron
Conditional	ovyri	ovyžiš	ovyži	ovyžimu	ovyžisi	ovyžen
Subjunctive
Present	ajaj	ajaš	aja	ajamu	ajasi	ajan
Past	ovyši	ovyšiš	ovyše	ovyšimu	ovyšisi	ovyšen
Imperative
		ja		ažem	ažes
Non-finite forms
Infinitive	ajer
Pres. part.	ajenj
Pst. part.	ajetu
Gerund	ajendi

Conjugation of pošer:

	Singular			Plural
	First	Second	Third	First	Second	Third
Indicative
Present	posi	poseš	pose	posimu	puseči	poson
Imperfect	poseraj	poseraš	posea	pusežamu	pusežasi	poseran
Past	putyj	putyč	putyw	putymu	putyči	putyron
Future	poseri	posežiš	poseži	pusežimu	pusežisi	poseron
Conditional	putyri	putyžiš	putyži	putyžimu	putyžisi	putyžen
Subjunctive
Present	poši	pošiš	poše	pušimu	pušisi	pošen
Past	putyši	putyšiš	putyše	putyšimu	putyšisi	putyšen
Imperative
Non-finite forms
Infinitive	pošer
Pres. part.	posenj
Pst. part.	pusytu
Gerund	pusendi

Conjugation of jeljer:

	Singular			Plural
	First	Second	Third	First	Second	Third
Indicative
Present	voli	jiš	vol	volmu	volsi	volon
Imperfect	vuljevaj	vuljevaš	vuljeva	vuljejamu	vuljejasi	vuljevan
Past	vulyj	vulyč	vulyw	vulymu	vulyči	vulyron
Future	jeljeri	jelježiš	jelježi	jelježimu	jelježisi	jeljeron
Conditional	vulyri	vulyžiš	vulyži	vulyžimu	vulyžisi	vulyžen
Subjunctive
Present	jelj	jeljiš	jelje	jeljimu	jeljisi	jeljen
Past	vulyši	vulyšiš	vulyše	vulyšimu	vulyšisi	vulyšen
Imperative
		jelj		jeljim	jeljis
Non-finite forms
Infinitive	jeljer
Pres. part.	jeljenj
Pst. part.	vulytu
Gerund	jeljendi

Conjugation of zar:

	Singular			Plural
	First	Second	Third	First	Second	Third
Indicative
Present	do	zaš	za	zamu	zasi	zan
Imperfect	zavaj	zavaš	zava	dajamu	dajasi	zavan
Past	zezi	zezič	zezu	zezimu	zeziči	zeziron
Future	zari	zažiš	zaži	zažimu	zažisi	zaron
Conditional	zeziri	zezižiš	zeziži	zezižimu	zezižisi	zezižen
Subjunctive
Present	ze	zeš	ze	zemu	zesi	zen
Past	zeziši	zezišiš	zeziše	zezišimu	zezišisi	zezišen
Imperative
		za		zam	zas
Non-finite forms
Infinitive	zar
Pres. part.	zanj
Pst. part.	zatu
Gerund	zandi

Conjugation of ir:

	Singular			Plural
	First	Second	Third	First	Second	Third
Indicative
Present	jadi	jaž	jaz	anzamu	anzasi	jan
Imperfect	anzavaj	anzavaš	anzava	andajamu	andajasi	anzavan
Past	anzej	anzeč	anzow	anzemu	anzeči	anzeron
Future	iri	ižiš	iži	ižimu	ižisi	iron
Conditional	anzeri	anzežiš	anzeži	anzežimu	anzežisi	anzežen
Subjunctive
Present	jadaj	jadaš	jada	anzemu	anzesi	jadan
Past	anzeši	anzešiš	anzeše	anzešimu	anzešisi	anzešen
Imperative
		jaz		anzam	anzas
Non-finite forms
Infinitive	ir
Pres. part.	jenj
Pst. part.	anzatu
Gerund	jendi

Non-finite forms

The infinitive is an indeclinable verbal noun which largely corresponds to the English infinitive. It is largely used as a base to an auxillary verb, but it can be used as a standalone noun (typically as a nominative argument). An example of its use as a noun is the line ješer, o nu ješer ("to be, or not to be"). Verbs of motion (e.g. ir, meaning "to go") can also use a verb in the infinitive to indicate purpose.

Durygan has two participles, both of which can act as adjectives or adverbs. The present participle declines irregularly:

	Masc./Fem.		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	-j	-se	-	-sa
Accusative	-s	-sej	-	-sa
Genitive	-seš	-siri	-seš	-siri
Dative	-si	-sew	-si	-sew

Note that the present participle has two stems (although most verbs use identical stems): one is used for the nominative singular (and accusative singular in the neuter gender), and may be unique to the present participle, and the other stem is used for the oblique and plural forms, and is based on the gerund. The following is an example of the two stems (using the present participle of pošer):

	Masc./Fem.		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	posenj	pusense	posen	pusensa
Accusative	pusens	pusensej	posen	pusensa
Genitive	pusenseš	pusensiri	pusenseš	pusensiri
Dative	pusensi	pusensew	pusensi	pusensew

This originates from sound changes affecting /a/ and /o/ being dependent on whether the syllable is stressed. Unstressed /o/ becomes /u/ when in pretonic position (and /i/ when in posttonic position and not nasalised; if it is nasalised, it remains /o/), with stressed /o/ remaining /o/. Stressed /a/ initiates palatalisation of the preceeding consonant for a number of consonants, while unstressed /a/ remains unchanged. Note that some verbs (including all first conjugation verbs) have levelled away this difference.

The past participle declines like a normal adjective. Both participles lack dedicated adverbial forms; instead, an adjectival form is used depending on the auxillary verb used and the arguments of the clause:

• If the auxillary is ješer or jsar, then the participle agrees with the subject in number and gender. The participle is in the nominative case.
• If the auxillary is ajer, then the participle agrees with the object in number and gender (if it exists), or uses the neuter singular form (if the object does not exist). The participle is in the accusative case.

The gerund is another verbal noun, and it largely corresponds to the English gerund. It is declined as a neuter second declension noun.

Vocabulary

Time

General terms

English	Durygan
second	šekonda
minute	minyta
hour	ora
day	zorni
night	noj
week	šesemjana
month	meš
year	janu

Relative time

English	Durygan
day before yesterday	anseži
yesterday	eži
today	oze
tomorrow	amanje
day after tomorrow	pojsamanje

Days of the week

English	Durygan
Sunday	soljeza
Monday	lynjeza
Tuesday	marseza
Wednesday	merkožiza
Thursday	jojeza
Friday	jenježeza
Saturday	satornjiza

Months of the year

English	Durygan
January	janaži
February	hebraži
March	marci
April	apšilj
May	mai
June	jynj
July	jylj
August	agysti
September	šesenžer
October	učonžer
November	nojenžer
December	zečenžer

The names from September to December change the -nž to -mbž and eliminate the -er in the non-nominative cases and the plural.

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Tosi elj omnje njašon ljižeži ed ešalj en zinjisase ed en zižetori. Son dosasi ze rasonj e ze konšensa, e zejen ažir elj wynj jersu elj alči en šišsi frasernjisase.

/'to.si e.'ʎom.ɲe 'ɲa.ɕõ ʎi.'ʑe.ʑi e.de.'ɕaʎ ẽ.zi.ɲi.'sa.se e.dẽ.zi.'ʑe.to.ɾi/. /'sõ do.'sa.si ze.ɾa.'soɲ e.ze.kõ.'ɕẽ.sa/, /e.'ze.jen a.'ʑiɾ eʎ.'vyɲ jeɾ.su e.'ʎal.t͡ɕi ẽ.'ɕiɕ.si fɾa.seɾ.ɲi.'sa.se/.